Psya1 - Research Methods

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Experiment method - definition

Back 1

Assesses a cause and effect relationship. Involving the researcher directly manipulating the I.V.

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Laboratory experiment - definition

Back 2

The manipulation of an independent variable that takes place in a setting or conditions that allows for the careful control of confounding variables.

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Laboratory experiment - advantages

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The researcher has a high degree of control over the independent and extraneous variables.It is the most scientific type of experiment because it is the most easy to replicate.

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Laboratory experiment - disadvantages

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The artificial setting can lead to low ecological validity. The demand characteristics are more likely to have an effect and become a confounding variable than in other types of experiment.

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Field experiment - definition

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The manipulation of an independent variable in a semi-controlled/real situation.

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Field experiment - advantages

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Can achieve greater levels of ecological validity than laboratory experiments. The demand characteristics are less likely of having an effect than in a laboratory experiment.

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Field experiment - disadvantages

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Difficult to replicate and therefore a less scientific method than laboratory experiments. Extraneous variables cannot be controlled as easily as in a laboratory experiment.

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Natural experiment - definition

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The exploitation of an independent variable which occurs naturally and is not manipulated by a researcher.

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Natural experiment - advantages

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Actually occurred naturally so it has very high ecological validity. Allows researchers to study experiments that would be unethical to engineer.

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Natural experiement - disadvantages

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Confounding variables cannot be controlled by the investigator. As a result a cause and effect relationship cannot be established. Low repeatability not at all scientific.

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Operationalisation - definition

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The specification of variables to make them physically measurable.

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Independent variable - definition

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The aspect of an experiment that a researcher manipulates.

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Dependent variable - defintion

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The aspect of an experiment that we measure the independent variables effect on.

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Extraneous variable - defintion

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Any factors in an experiment other than the independent variable that could effect the dependent variable.

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Correlational Study - definition

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An exploration of the relationship between two co-variables to see if they are related.

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Correlational Study - advantages

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Shows the strength of a correlation between two co-variables. Can be used when experiments are unethical.

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Corelational Study - disavantages

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Cannot establish "cause and effect". Cannot be used to assess non-linear relationships.

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Observations - Definition

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Behavior is described objectively and exactly through the use of behavioral categories.

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Observations - advantages

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Can be used when experiments would be inappropriate (eg. funeral). Actual behavior is being observed and therefore has high ecological validity.

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Observations - disadvantages

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Difficult to replicate. An observers effect could become a confounding variable if the experiment is covert.

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Behavioural categories - definition

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A checklist of specific and expected behaviours that that are recorded as they are observed.

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Questionnaires - definition

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When a researcher prepares written questions and asks participants to give a written response which is analysed by the researcher.

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Questionnaires - advantages

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Can asses internal processes that are not expressed through external behavior.Easier than other research techniques to asses a large group of people which makes results more generalisable.

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Questionnaires - disadvantages

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Participants can easily respond with lies. Different participants may interpret the same question differently.

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Interviews - definition

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When a researcher prepares verbal questions and asks for a verbal response from participants.

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Interviews - advantages

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Allows researchers to investigate sensitive topics with care- means researchers may be able to conduct research that could be deemed unethical. The interviewer can explain any questions to the participant to ensure they understand all questions.

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Interviews - disadvantages

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Difficult to collect a high amount of results since the process is expensive and long meaning results are less generalisable .The appearance of the researcher could affect the participants response, for example 1960s civil rights and ethnic group of the interviewer.

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Closed questions - defintion

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Questions in which respondents have a limited selection of pre-chosen responses.

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Closed questions - advantage and disadvantage

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+Quantitative data is produced which can be easily be analysed.
- Participants may not respond fully/truthfully and consequently data may lack validity.

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Open questions - defintion

Back 30

Questions in which respondents can respond freely giving answers of their choice in their chosen depth.

Front 31

Open questions - advantage and disadvantage

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May offer new information which was unconsidered by the researcher and results should have greater validity. However, qualitative data will be produced which is difficult to analyse.

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Case Study - definition

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An in depth investigation of an individual(s) with a particular experience/ characteristic. Often sued in unethical areas of research.

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Case Study - advantages

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Allows researchers to study areas of research which would be unethical to manipulate. Allows researchers to study mental processes over a long period of time.

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Case Study - Disadvantages

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The experiences of an individual are hardly likely to accurately reflect the entire human race and ergo results lack generalisability. If the researcher gains an attachment to the individual(s) being researched the research may become un-objective.

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Aim - definition

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A general idea of what the researcher wants to investigate. For example to study the effect of gender on conformity.

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Hypothesis - defintion

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A clear statement, usually based on previous research, about what your research intends to prove or disprove.

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Directional Hypothesis - defintion and example

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This predicts the direction in which the results of an experiment are expected to go. For example boys are more aggressive than girls.

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Non-directional Hypothesis - defintion and example

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A prediction that their will be a correlation between two variables without specifying whether it will be positive or negative.

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Independent Groups - explanation

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When different participants are randomly randomly allocated to each condition.

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Independent Groups - advantages

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Less chance of demand characteristics having an effect. No order effect is present since each participant is only subjected to one condition.

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Independent Groups - disadvantages

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Twice as many participants are required than in a repeated measures design.There may be inter-group differences which would result in an uncontrolled extraneous variable.

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Repeated Measures - explanation

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When the same participants are used for each condition of an experiment.

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Repeated Measures - advantages

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Needs fewer participants than IG or MP designs. There is no chance of inter-group differences as all Ps take part in all conditions.

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Repeated Measures - disadvantages

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Order effects could occur and demand characteristics are more likely to have an effect. Some research cannot used Repeated Measures.

Front 45

Matched Pairs - explanation

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The use of different but similar Ps in each condition. Researchers will attempt to match any Ps in possession of important characteristics that could effect performance in each condition.

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Matched Pairs - advantages

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No order effects and less chance of demand characteristics as Ps only take part in one condition.

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Matched Pairs - disadvantages

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Takes time and resources to match Ps. Even after matching there could still be uncontrolled inter-group differences that are responsible for any difference in the DV.

Front 48

Random Sampling - definition and method

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where each member of the traget population has an equal chance of being selected.A popular method is to give each member of the target population a number and then to take numbers from a random number table.

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Random Sampling - advantages and disadvantages

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Potentailly unbiased since everyone on the target population has an equal chance of being selected and the researcher does not intervene. However,

Front 50

Opportunity Sampling - definition and method

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Where those easily avaliable are selected. For example a lecturer may use his students as Ps.

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Opportunity Sampling - advantage and disadvantage

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As the easiest Ps to find are used the sample tends to be the fastest smapling method. Sample is likely to be biased- cliques are likely to be unrepresentative.

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BPS Code of Ethics - description

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Ethical guidelines formulated by the BPS to be used to "clarify the conditions under which psychological research can take place".

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Ethical Issue - definition

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The possibility that research could not be treating a particiapnt with dignity and respect.

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Confidentiality - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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Ensuring that details of the P's performance do not become apparent. The researcher could employ techniques to maintain the confidentiality of the Ps such as the use of pseudonyms or participant numbers.

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Observation - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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Are Ps in a situation where they expect their behaviour to be observed? Ensure that the person is in a situation where they are expecting to be observed or make them aware that they will be observed.

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Withdrawl - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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Researcher may not inform Ps of their right to withdraw or may prevent them from withdrawing from the research. Research should inform the Ps of their right to withdraw before comencing the research and in no way hinder them from leaving the research before it is completed if that is their decision.

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Deception - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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Researcher intentionally tells the Ps a false aim or/and false procedures of the research. Researchers should inform Ps of the true aim and procedures of the research after the research is conducted and give the Ps an opportunity to withdraw their data.

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Informed Consent- definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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Researcher does not tell the Ps the true aim or/and procedures of the research. Researcher should inform Ps of the true aim and/or procedures of the research to ensure fully informed consent.

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Protection from physical harm - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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During the research Ps are more likely suffer from physical harm than in normal circumstances. Researchers should esnure any equipment used is safe and that Ps are in no greater risk than posed by their everyday life.

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Protection from psychological harm - definition of issue and way of dealing with it

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During the research Ps are more likely to suffer from psychological harm than in normal circumstances. The researcher shoudl ensure that the procedure will not create an opportunity for any P to feel negatively about themself or their performance and if inevitable they should give advice and support.

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Reliability - defintion

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Reliability refers to the consistency of a measuring instrument- in psychology the consistency of a tests results or an observer's observations. Psychological tests must achieve a reasonable level of reliability to for the results to have any meaning.

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Internal relaibility - defintion

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Whether a test is consistently whatever it is supposed to be measuring. Are all the Ps in the experiment having the same experience?

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External reliability - definition

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Whether findings of research are found to be similar over time. Would research produce similar results on many different occasions?

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Validity - definition

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Whether a measuring instrument is measuring what it is supposed to be measuring- important to all psychological measures. e.g. operationalising variables.

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Internal validity - definition

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Whether the research has shown that what it has measured are due to the factors being assessed. Does the research measure what it claims to measure? e.g. intelligence tests intelligence not educational level.

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External validity - definition

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Whether research can be generalised to other people/situations than the research situation. Population validity- target group. Ecological validity- other situations than the research scenario.

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Demand Characteristics - definition

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All the cues which convey to the participant the purpose of the study which may cause them to behave in a way the would not ordinarily have done.

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Investigator Effects - definition

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When a reseracher conveys to Ps how they should behave, even unconsciously. The cues may be very subtle and the researcher may be unaware of his influence.

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Pilot Study - definition

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A small scale version of the research conducted before the actual reserch is conducted to highlight any changes that could be benficial before the research is conducted. Cna also be used to decide whether to use a directional or non-directional hypothesis.

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MOCT(Measure of central tendency) - Mean - defintion

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A MOCT- a result of the total of all scores divided by the number No of Ps.

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MOCT - Mean - advantage and disadvantage

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+ All scores are taken into account
- May be affected by an outlying or anomalous result

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MOCT - Median - definition

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A MOCT which is teh middle value after all the scores have been put in rank order.

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MOCT - Median - advantage and disadvantage

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+ Is not affected by any anomalous.
- Not all the scores are taken into account.

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MOCT - Mode - definition

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A MOCT which is the result that is most frequently occurring .

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MOCT - Mode - advantage and disadvantage

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+ The score is definitely one tha occurred in the data set
-There may be no mode or multiple modes.

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Range - definition

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A MOD that is the difference between the highest and lowest score in the data set.

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Range - advantage and disadvantage

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+Shows us just how varied Ps performaces are.
- A very crude MOD

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Standard Deviation - definition

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A MOD that assesses how varied a score is from the mean.

Front 79

Standard Deviation - advantage and disadvantage

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+A much more precise measure than the range
-May hide soem characteristics of a data set e.g. extreme scores

Front 80

Positive correlation - definition

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When high values one variable are associated with high values of the other.

Front 81

Negative correlation - definition

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When high values of one variable are associated with low values of the other.

Front 82

Correlation coefficient - definition

Back 82

A method to express teh degree of association between two set of variables.
Perfect positive or negative correlation= 1.00/-1.00. No association = 0.
0-0.35 weak ,0.36-0.65 reasonbly strong and 0.66-0.99+ strong correlation +/-

Front 83

Bar chart - definition

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Graph which shows the frequency of category data.

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Bar chart - advantage and disadvantage

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+ Clear pictoral representation of categories of data.
- Cannot determine if any noted differences are significant or not.

Front 85

Histogram/Line Graph - definition

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Graph which shows the frequency of continuous data.

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Histogram/Line Graph - advantage and disadvantage

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+ Clear pictoral representation of continuous data
- Cannot determine if any noted differences are significant or not.

Front 87

Scattergram - definition

Back 87

Graph which shows the relationship between two co-variables.

Front 88

Scattergram - advantage and disadvantage

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+ Indicates both the strength and nature of a relationship between 2 co-variables
- Cannot determine if any noted rleationship is significant or not

Front 89

Qualitative Data - definition

Back 89

Data that is not expressed in a numerical form. The emphasis is on the stated expereince of the Ps and the stated menaing they attach to it.

Front 90

Content Analysis - definition

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A quantitative analysis of qualitative data by categorising the responses and putting the data into bar charts.

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Content Analysis - advantage and disadvantage

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+Often less influeneced than quantitative analysis by biases and theoretical assumptions.

+ It also allows Ps to be studied as rounded individuals while quantitative analysis recognises only narrow aspects of their behaviour.
- Findings tend to be unreliable and difficult to replicate because the approach is soo subjective and categorisation + interpretation differs from one researcher to another.

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Content Analysis - processes involved in...

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Involves a quantitative analysis of information people have produced.
1. Coding system of categories created.
2. Pilot study undertaken to generate coding system and test it.
3. Record the frequency for each category.
4. Have a colleague verify your results.

Front 93

Volunteer Sample - Definition and method

Back 93

Where a researcher advertises for volunteers online or in a newspaper.

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Volunteer Sample - advantage and disadvantage

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Researcher knows the Ps want to take part in the research. The sample is likely to be highly motivated and therefore unrepresentative(volunteer bias).