Psy 356 Exam 3

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Factorial Design

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any experimental design with more than one independent variable

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Factorial Matrix

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a row and column arrangement that characterizes a factorial design and shows the independent variables, the levels of each independent variable, and the total number of conditions (cells) in the study

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Main Effect

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The presence or otherwise of statistically significant differences between the levels of an independent variable in a factorial design

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Interaction

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in a factorial design, occurs when the effect of one independent variable depends on the levels of another independent variable

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Ceiling Effects

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occurs when scores on two or more conditions are at or near the maximum possible for the scale being used, giving the impression that no difference exists between the conditions

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Floor Effects

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occurs when scores on two or more conditions are at or near the minimum possible for the scale being used, giving the impression that no differences exist between the conditions

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Mixed Factorial Design

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a factorial design with at least one between-subjects factor and one within-subjects design

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P X E Factorial design

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a factorial design with at least one subject factor (p=person variable) and one manipulated factor (E=environmental variable)

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Mixed P X E Factorail Design

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a mixed design with at least one subject factor and one manipulated factor

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ATI design

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aptitude by treatment interaction design; form of PxE factorial design found in educational interactions between an aptitude variable (person factor)and a treatment variable (environmental factors)

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simple effects analysis

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following an ANOVA, a follow-up test to a significant interaction, comparing individual cells

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ANOVA

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short for Analysis Of Variance, the most common inferential statistical tool for analyzing the results of experiments when dependent variables are measured on interval or ratio scales

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quasi-experimental design

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occurs when causal conclusions about the effect of an independent variable cannot be drawn because subjects cannot be randomly assigned to the groups being given different levels of independent variables

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basic research

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research with the goal of describing, predicting, and explaining fundamental principles

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applied research

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research with the goal of trying to solve an immediate real-life problem

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counterbalancing

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for a within-subjects variable, any procedure designed to control for sequence effects

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placebo

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in medicine, an inert substance said to have medicinal effect; in research, a condition in which subjects believe the treatment is in effect but actually its not

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double blind

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a control procedure designed to reduce bias; neither the participant nor the person conducting the experimental session knows which condition of the study is being tested; often used in studies evaluating drug effects

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nonequivalent groups design

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quasi experimental design in which participants cannot be randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups

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trend

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predictable patterns of events that occur over time; evaluated in time series studies

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interrupted time series with switching replication

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a time series design in which the program is replicated at a different location and at a different time

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archival data

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data initially collected for a purpose not related to a current research study and used later for a specific purpose in the current research

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archival research

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a method in which existing records are examined to test a hypothesis

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content analysis

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a procedure used to systematically categorize the content of the behavior (often verbal behavior)being recorded

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reactivity

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occurs when participants behavior is influenced by the knowledge that they are being observed and their behavior recorded

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experimenter bias

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occurs when an experimenters expectations about a study affect its outcome

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program evaluations

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a form of applied research that includes a number of research activities designed to evaluate programs from planning to completion

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needs analysis

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form of program evaluation that occurs before a program begins and determines whether the program is needed

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availability heuristic

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social cognition bias in which vivid or memorable events lead people to overestimate the frequency of occurrence of these events

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key informant

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in program evaluation research, a community member with special knowledge about the needs of that community

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focus group

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a small and relatively homogeneous group brought together for the purpose of participating in a group interview on some topic or, in program evaluation research, to discuss the need for or the operation of a program

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community forum

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in program evaluation research, a meeting open to community members to discuss the need for, or the operation of, some progress

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formative evaluations

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form of program evaluation that monitors the functioning of a program while it is operating to determine if it is functioning's planned

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summative evaluations

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form of program evaluation completed at the close of a program, that attempts to determine its effectiveness in solving the problem for which it was planned

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program audit

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an examination of whether a program is being implemented as planned, a type of formative evaluations

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cost-effective analysis

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form of program evaluation that assesses outcomes in terms of the costs involved in developing, running, and completing the program

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stakeholder

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in program evaluation research, persons connected with a program that have a vested interest in it; includes clients, staff, and program directors

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design/ethical issues with applied research

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Ethicaldilemmas

•e.g., consent, privacy, potentialcoercion Trade-off etween internal and external validity • Internal validity can suffer

Problemsunique to between-subjects designs • Can be difficult to createequivalent groups Problemsunique to within-subjects designs • Uncontrolled sequence effects,attrition

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defining feature of quasi-experimental designs

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Nocausal conclusions,

less than complete control,

no random assignment

Fromprior chapters:

•Single-factor nonequivalent groupsdesigns • Nonequivalent groups factorialdesigns

•PxEfactorial designs

•All the correlational research

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features of nonequivalent control group design

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Typically(but not necessarily) include pretests and posttests

•Experimental O1 T O2

•Nonequivcontrol O1 O2

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why is control group design necessarily confounded & what are common confounds?

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features of interrupted time series designs

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Usefulfor evaluating overall trends

Basicdesign

O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 T O6 O7 O8 O9 O10

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advantages/limitations of archival research

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archivalresearch can be performed with data already been collected for another purpose (e.g.,census data).

•Often undergoes content analysis

•Susceptible to missing data andbias, but no reactivity

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Identify and describethe special ethical problems that often accompany program evaluation research.

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Consentissues

Confidentialityissues

Perceivedinjustice

Participant crosstalk

control group perceives themselves at a disadvantage

Stakeholderconflicts

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small N designs

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used when individual-subject validity is week, such as when summarizinglarge numbers of people, and when studying individuals from rare populations(e.g., clinical).

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parsimonious explanation

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describing a theory that includes the minimum number of contracts and assumptions in order to explain and predict some phenomenon adequately

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individual-subject validity

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the extent to which the general outcome of a research study characterizes the behavior of the individual participants in the study

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operant conditioning

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form of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences; a positive consequence strengthens the behavior immediately preceding it, and a negative consequence weakens the behavior immediately preceding it.

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rate of response

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the favored dependent variable of researchers working in the skinnerian tradition; refers to how frequently a behavior occurs per unit of time

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cumulative recorder

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apparatus for recording the subjects cumulative rate of response in operant conditioning studies

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applied behavior analysis

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research using various methods to evaluate the effectiveness of conditioning procedures in bringing about changes in the rate of response of some behavior

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baseline

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the initial stage of a small N design, in which the behavior to be changed is monitored to determine its normal rate of response

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A-B Design

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a small N design tin which a baseline period (A) is followed by a treatment period (B)

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withdrawal design

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a small N design in which a treatment is in place for a time and then removed to determine if the rate of behavior returns to baseline

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A-B-A design

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a small N design tin which a baseline period (A) is followed by a treatment period (B) followed by a period in which the treatment is reserved or withdrawn (second A)

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A-B-A-B design

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like ABA design except that a second treatment period is established (second B)

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multiple baseline design

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a small N design in which treatment is introduced at staggered intervals when trying to alter (a) the behaviors of more than one individual, (b) more than one behavior in the same individual, or (c) the behavior of an individual in more than one setting

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changing criterion design

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a small N design design in which the criterion for receiving reinforcement begins at a modest level and becomes more stringent as the study progresses, used to shape behavior

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shaping

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operant procedure for developing a new behavior that underlies the changing criterion design, behaviors are reinforced as they become progressively close to a final desired behavior

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social validity

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the extent to which an applied behavior analysis program has the potential to improve society, whether its value is perceived by the study's participants, and whether participants actually use the program

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A-B-C-B design

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•Evaluates contingent reinforcement

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A-A1-B-A1-B design

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•Evaluates placebo effect (A1)

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alternating treatments design

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a small N design that compares, in the same study and for the same participant(s), two or more forms of treatment for changing some behavior

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case study

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a descriptive method in which an in-depth analysis is made of a single individual, a single rare event, or an event that clearly exemplifies some phenomenon

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practical reasons for doing small N research.

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· Describe B. F. Skinner’sbasic philosophy about the proper way to conduct research (contemplative vs.technological ideal).

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•Skinner believed using science to achieve control

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describe three varieties of the multiple baseline procedure

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•One behavior, two or more subjects

•Two or more behaviors, one subject

•Two or more environments, one behavior,one subject

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naturalistic observation

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descriptive research method in which the behavior of people or animals is studied as it occurs in its everyday natural environment

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participant observations

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descriptive research method in which the behavior of people is studied as it occurs in its everyday natural environment and the researcher becomes a part of the group being observed

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observer bias

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can occur when preconceived ideas held by the researcher affect the nature of the observations made

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behavior checklist

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lists of behaviors with predefined operational definitions that researchers are trained to use in an observational study

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interobserver reliability

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the degree of agreement between two or more observers of the same event

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time samplling

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a procedure in observational research in which behavior is sampled during predefined times only (e.g. every 10 minutes)

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event sampling

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a procedure in observational research in which only certain types of behaviors occurring under precisely defined conditions are sampled

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unobtrusive measure

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a measure of behavior that can be recorded without participants knowing their behavior has been observed

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survey

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a descriptive method in which participants are asked a series of questions or respond to a seres of statements about a topic

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convenience sample

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a non probability sample in which the researcher requests volunteers from a group of people who meet the general requirements of the study (e.g. teenagers); used in most psychological research, except when specific estimates of population values must be made

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probability sampling

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Randomsampling

•Each member of pop. has equal chance ofbeing selected as member of sample

•Sometimes use a random number generatorto select from population

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representative

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a sample with characteristics that match those attributes as they exist in the population

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biased

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a sample that is not representative of the population

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self-selection

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in surveys, when the sample is composed of only those who volunteer those who voluntarily choose to respond, the result can be a biased sample

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simple random sample

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a probability sample in which each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as a member of the sample

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stratified sample

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a probability sample that is random with the restriction that important subgroups are proportionately represented within it

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quota sample

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a non probability sample in which the proportions of some subgroups in the sample are the same as those subgroup proportions in the population

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cluster sampling

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a probability sample that randomly selects clusters of people having some feature in common (e.g. students taking a history course) and tests all people within the selected cluster

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interview survey

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a survey method in which the researcher interviews the participant face to face; allows for more in-depth surveying (e.g. follow up questions and clarification)

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phone survey

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a survey method in which the researcher asks questions over the phone

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sugging

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a marketing strategy in which an attempt to sell a product is made by distinguishing the sales pitch with what appears to be a legitimate survey; the term is fort for Selling Under the Guise of a survey

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electronic survey

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survey research conducted over the internet; can be a survey sent via email or posted on a website

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written survey

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a survey method in which the researcher creates a written questionnaire that is filled out by participants

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nonresponsive bias

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occurs in survey research when those those who return surveys differ systematically )e.g. in political attitudes) from those who don't respond

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social desirability bias

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a type of response bias in survey research; occurs when people respond to a question by trying to put themselves in a favorable light

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open ended question

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a type of question found on surveys that requires a narrative response rather than a yes or no answer

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closed question

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a type of question found on surveys that can be answered yes or no or by marking a point on a scale

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response acqueiscience

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a response set in which a participant tends to respond positively to survey questions, all else being equal

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DK alternitave

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in survey research, when assessing levels of participants knowledge, this is an alternative that means don't know

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demographic informations

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data that classifies or identifies individuals (e.g. gender, age, income)

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doulbe-barreled question

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in a survey. a question or statement that asks or states two things in a single item

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leading question

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in a survey, a question asked in such a way that the answer desired by the questioner is clear

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descriptive statistics

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provide a summary of the main features of a set of data collected orm a sample of participants

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inferential statistics

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used to draw conclusions about the broader population on the basis of a study using a sample of the population

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sample frame

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list of individuals from whom a sample will be drawn; with cluster sampling, a list of groups from which a sample of groups will be selected

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· Explain the problemsfrequently encountered in survey research

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surveywording

•Avoid ambiguity (pilot study helps)

•Don’t ask for two things in one question

•Double-barreled questions