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20 Cards in this Set

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Describe the typical changes in physical growth that take place in toddlerhood and explain the harmful effects of nutritional deficiencies on growth.
Toddlers’ physical growth continues at a pace that is slightly reduced from infancy but is nevertheless faster than at any later time of life. Toddlers in developing countries often suffer protein and micronutrient deficiencies that impede their physical and cognitive development.
Describe the changes in brain development that take place during toddlerhood, and identify the two most common methods of measuring brain activity.
The brain’s synaptic density peaks at the end of toddlerhood, followed by many years of synaptic pruning. The two most common methods of measuring brain activity are the EEG and the fMRI.
Describe the changes in sleeping patterns and sleeping arrangements that take place during toddlerhood.
Toddlers’ episodes of night-waking increase from 18 to 24 months of age, in part due to teething of molars. In traditional cultures, toddlers sleep with their mothers until the next child is born, after which they sleep with other family members.
Describe the advances in motor development that take place during toddlerhood.
In their gross motor development, toddlers learn to walk, run, climb, and kick a ball. Toddlers in traditional cultures are often restricted in their movements to protect them from danger—especially cooking fires. Advances in fine motor development include holding a cup and building a tower of blocks. In their third year, toddlers may be able to brush their teeth, with some assistance.
Compare and contrast the process and timing of toilet training in developed countries and traditional cultures.
Children vary widely in the timing of learning toilet training, but most are toilet trained by the end of toddlerhood. In traditional cultures, toddlers usually learn controlled elimination through observing and imitating older children.
Distinguish the weaning process early in infancy from weaning later in toddlerhood.
When weaning takes place in the second or third year of life, toddlers often resist. Customs in traditional cultures for promoting weaning include sending the toddler to a relative's household for awhile or coating the mother's breast with an unpleasant substance.
Outline the cognitive achievements of toddlerhood in Piaget’s theory.
According to Piaget, the ability for mental representations develops in the second half of the second year and is the basis for important aspects of later cognitive functioning, including problem solving and language. Object permanence also reaches near-completion during this period. Deferred imitation and categorization also require mental representation.
Explain Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development and contrast it with Piaget’s theory.
Unlike Piaget and most other cognitive theorists and researchers, Vygotsky emphasized the cultural basis of cognitive development in childhood. He proposed concepts such as scaffolding and the zone of proximal development to describe how children obtain cultural knowledge from adults.
Summarize the evidence for the biological and evolutionary bases of language.
In humans the larynx is lower in the throat than it is in other primates, making spoken language possible. Humans also have areas in the brain specifically devoted to language functions. Anatomically the capacity for language appears to have first developed in early hominids 2 million years ago.
Describe the milestones in language development that take place during the toddler years.
At 18 months, most toddlers speak about 50 words, usually in holophrases. By 24 months, most speak about 200 words and combine some words in telegraphic speech. By their third birthdays, most can easily use the language of their culture in full sentences.
Identify how parents’ stimulation of toddlers’ language varies across cultures and evaluate how these variations relate to language development.
Cultures vary widely in how much they encourage toddlers’ language development, from stimulating language use through direct interactions, to allowing toddlers to be present among conversing adults but otherwise not speaking to them much, to actually discouraging them from talking. Regardless of cultural practices, toddlers generally learn to use their language well by the time they reach age 3.
Describe how emotional development advances during toddlerhood and identify the impact of culture on these changes.
Sociomoral emotions developing in toddlerhood include guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride. They are called sociomoral emotions because they indicate that toddlers have begun to learn the moral standards of their culture. Toddlers in Western cultures have occasional tantrums, perhaps because they have a more developed sense of intentionality than infants do and so are more likely to protest when thwarted. However, tantrums are rare outside the West where cultures place less emphasis on self-expression.
Describe the changes in self-development that take place during toddlerhood.
The birth of the self in toddlerhood is indicated in the development of self-recognition and self-reflection. Toddlers begin to use personal pronouns such as "I" and "me" and to refer to themselves by name.
Distinguish between sex and gender and summarize the evidence for the biological basis of gender development.
Sex is the biological status of being male or female, whereas gender refers to the cultural categories of “male” and “female.” Gender identity first develops during toddlerhood, as children begin to identify themselves and others as male or female.The biological basis of gender is indicated in evolutionary theory, ethological studies, and hormonal studies. However, changes in male and female roles in recent times have shown that these roles can change dramatically over a relatively short time and therefore biological assumptions about gender should be viewed with skepticism.
Describe the essential features of attachment theory and identify the four classifications of attachment.
In formulating attachment theory, Bowlby emphasized the evolutionary need for a person who would provide protection and care during the vulnerable early years of life. Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation to assess attachment quality, and concluded that it showed three distinct types of attachment: secure, insecure–avoidant, and insecure–resistant. Disorganized–disoriented is a fourth classification, added by later researchers.
Identify the key factors influencing the quality of toddlers’ attachment to their mothers, and explain what effect attachment quality has on development.
The quality of attachment is based mainly on how sensitive and responsive a mother is toward her child. Research indicates some relation between attachment quality in toddlerhood and later development, but also shows that the internal working model established in toddlerhood can be modified by later experiences. Attachment quality is also influenced by infant temperament, and by reciprocal or bidirectional influences between parent and child.
Compare and contrast the typical patterns of father involvement with infants and toddlers in traditional cultures and developed countries.
Fathers in traditional cultures usually serve as family providers but are remote from toddlers’ emotional lives, although there are exceptions. Across cultures, fathers tend to provide less physical and emotional care than mothers, but this is changing as gender roles and work responsibilities change.
Describe relationships with siblings, peers, and friends during toddlerhood.
Across cultures, toddlers often react negatively to the birth of a younger sibling. When toddlers themselves are the younger siblings, their older siblings enjoy playing with them more than when they were infants, but conflict tends to rise as toddlers become more capable of asserting their own desires. With friends, toddler play takes a variety of forms, including solitary play, parallel play, simple social play, and cooperative pretend play. Toddlers’ friendships often have qualities similar to friendships at older ages, including companionship, mutual affection, and emotional closeness.
Identify the characteristics of autism and recognize how autism affects prospects for children as they grow to adulthood.
Autism is a developmental disorder marked by a lack of interest in social relations, abnormal language development, and repetitive behavior. The social and language deficits of autism make social development problematic in childhood and beyond.
Identify the typical rates of television use in toddlerhood and explain some consequences of toddlers’ TV watching.
Toddlers in many countries watch TV every day. Television watching in toddlerhood may promote prosocial behavior if the TV content is prosocial, but there are concerns about the displacement effect, especially for children under 2 years old.