Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
124 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
learning |
relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience |
|
|
associative learning |
simple associations between various stimuli and responses
reinforcement is key
types: classical and operant conditioning |
|
|
cognitive learning |
higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation
using information rich or higher mental processes |
|
|
response |
any observable behavior |
|
|
behaviorism |
antecedent behavior consequence |
|
|
antecedent |
events that come before a behavior |
|
|
behavior |
response
anything observable and identifiable |
|
|
consequence |
effects that follow a behavior |
|
|
classical conditioning |
unlearned response
based on what happens before a response
pairing something that doesn't produce a response with something that does |
|
|
reinforcement |
increases likelihood of response |
|
|
punishment |
decreases likelihood of response |
|
|
unconditioned stimulus |
stimulus that is innately capable of initiating a response |
|
|
unconditioned response |
an innate (unlearned) reflex elicited by an unconditioned stimulus |
|
|
neutral stimulus |
stimulus that does not evoke a response |
|
|
conditioned stimulus |
stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus |
|
|
conditioned response |
learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus |
|
|
acquisition |
period in conditioning during which the response is reinforced |
|
|
respondent reinforcement |
occurs when an unconditioned stimulus closely follows or is paired with a conditioned stimulus
the unconditioned stimulus brings forth a response which becomes associated with the conditioned stimulus |
|
|
higher order conditioning |
a conditioned stimulus becomes strong enough to be used like an unconditioned stimulus and is used to reinforce further learning |
|
|
extinction |
removing connection between unlearned stimulus and conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus becomes a neutral stimulus once more |
|
|
spontaneous recovery |
reappearance of learned response |
|
|
generalization |
responding similarly to similar stimuli |
|
|
stimulus generalization |
tendency to respond to a similar but not identical stimuli |
|
|
discrimination |
responding differently to similar stimuli |
|
|
phobia |
unreasonable, uncontrollable fear of a given object or situation that can develop via conditioning
a learned, emotional reaction to a stimuli |
|
|
phobia treatments |
exposure and systematic desensitation |
|
|
avoidance |
feels good at the time but limits the person's "safety zone" |
|
|
operant conditioning |
instrumental learning
learning based on consequences after a response
the subject actively operate on the environment to produce an outcome |
|
|
Edward Thorndike: law effect |
the probability of a response is altered by the effect it has
learning is strengthened each time a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs
behaviors followed by pleasant consequences increase; unpleasant, decrease |
|
|
behavior shaping |
reinforcement and punishment |
|
|
reinforcement |
increases probability of a behavior
based on the individual |
|
|
punishment |
decreases probability of a behavior
following a response with an aversive consequence
onset of an unpleasant event or a response cost (removal of something pleasant)
most effective when immediate and predictable |
|
|
primary reinforcement |
unconditioned
satisfies a basic need
loses appeal quickly |
|
|
secondary reinforcement |
conditioned
often gain reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer |
|
|
negative |
stimulus removed |
|
|
positive |
stimulus added |
|
|
avoidance learning |
negative reinforcement
avoiding something to take away anxiety
increases itself |
|
|
physical punishment |
leads to aggression, impulsivity, and antisocial behavior |
|
|
modeling |
learning by observing |
|
|
Badndura's bobo doll experiment |
modeling of aggression
seeing someone vent aggression will make the subject more aggressive |
|
|
memory |
an active system that receives, stores, organizes, alters, and recovers information |
|
|
memory storage |
incoming info is: encoded (changed into a usable form) stored (held in memory system) retrieved (taken out of storage to actually be useful to you) |
|
|
sensory memory |
first stage of memory
holds an exact record of incoming info for a few seconds or less
usually unconscious
iconic and echoic |
|
|
iconic memory |
sensory memory when you see something
mental image or a visual representation |
|
|
echoic memory |
sensory memory when you hear something
brief continuation of sensory activity in the auditory system |
|
|
short-term memory |
used to hold small amounts of info in our conscious awareness for a dozen or so seconds
to keep things in STM you have to rehearse them |
|
|
working memory |
STM
thinking and problem solving
only so much you can remember before you have to dump it to hold more info |
|
|
miller's magic number |
digit span task
7 +/- 2 |
|
|
ways to improve STM |
chunking maintenance rehearsal/learning rote rehearsal/learning elaborative processing (best way) |
|
|
maintenance rehersal |
silently repeating or mentally reviewing info |
|
|
rote rehearsal/learning |
rehearsal to learn something not just short quick memorization |
|
|
elaborative processing |
making memories more meaningful through processing that encodes links between new info and existing memories and knowledge |
|
|
long-term memory |
used for relatively permanent storage for important or meaningful things
nearly limitless
the more you know, the easier it is for you to remember new things
procedural and declarative |
|
|
procedural memory |
type of LTM
easy to demonstrate, but hard to explain how you learned it
memories of learned, coordinated skills (cerebellum) |
|
|
declarative memory |
type of LTM
contains specific factual info like names, dates, faces, ideas
amnesia patients lose these
semantic and episodic |
|
|
semantic memory |
declarative memory of facts and principles
knowledge about the world around you
no connection to times or places |
|
|
episodic memory |
declarative memory of specific events in your life
autobiographical record of a person's experiences, linked with times and places
easier to forget than semantic memory |
|
|
tip-of-the-tongue |
feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable |
|
|
deja vu |
comes from partial memories
new experience seems familiar even though the older memory is too weak to rise to awareness because the brain did not think it was important enough to either store or retrieve |
|
|
main methods of measuring memory |
recall recognition relearning |
|
|
recall |
direct retrieval of facts or information
serial position effect - tendency to make errors of remembering in the middle of a list |
|
|
recognition |
ability to correctly identify previously learned material, much easier than recall
eyewitness testimony - problem when distractors are very similar to correct item creating a false memory |
|
|
relearning |
learning something again that was previously learned
savings score - amount of time saved when relearning info |
|
|
explicit memory |
memory that a person is aware of having
episodic, semantic |
|
|
implicit memory |
procedural
rely on the outside of awareness
memory you do not know exists and retrieve unconsciously |
|
|
priming |
facilitating the retrieval of an implicit memory by using cues to activate hidden memories |
|
|
encoding failure |
failure to store sufficient info to form a useful memory
too many stimuli can cause this |
|
|
storage failure |
over time, with disuse, these memories can fade
memory decay - fading/weakening of memories when memory traces become weaker |
|
|
retrieval failure |
forgetting LTM
even if memories are available, you still need to be able to access them
contributing factors: availability and accessibility, retrieval cues, interference, state-dependent learning, repression |
|
|
interference |
proactive and retroactive |
|
|
proactive interference |
past learning inhibits recall of later learning |
|
|
retroactive interference |
new learning inhibits the retrieval of old learning |
|
|
retrieval cues |
stimuli associated with a memory |
|
|
state-dependent learning |
memory is influenced by bodily state at time of learning and time of retrieval |
|
|
repression |
painful, threatening, or embarrassing memories are held out of consciousness
unconsciously pushing unwanted memories out of awareness
people prone to this tend to be extremely sensitive to emotional events |
|
|
suppression |
conscious effort to put something out of your mind
evidence to suggest that we can actively suppress memories |
|
|
intelligence |
the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment |
|
|
aptitude |
capacity for learning certain abilities |
|
|
Charles Spearman (1904) |
used statistical methods to describe intelligence as a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed
factor analysis and g-factor |
|
|
factor analysis |
ask a bunch of questions to figure out aptitudes |
|
|
g-factor |
general mental abilities in the areas of reasoning, problem solving, knowledge, memory, and successful adaptation to your surroundings |
|
|
Raymond Cattell |
differentiated types of intelligence as fluid and crystallized |
|
|
fluid intelligence |
capacity to think logically and solve problems in new situations
power of reasoning and using information
independent of learning, experience, and education
peaks at mid 20's |
|
|
crystallized intelligence |
use of skills, knowledge, and experience from prior learning
product of educational and cultural experiences
|
|
|
Howard Gardener |
questioned that intelligence is a single entity that can be measured with a g-factor
multiple intelligence as opposed to general intelligence |
|
|
Alfred Binet |
one of the first to research how to measure intelligence |
|
|
mental age |
how you score based on how ages score averagely |
|
|
Binet-Simon Scale |
the first intelligence test
now called the SB5 |
|
|
Wechsler Tests |
most common IQ test given by psychologists
WAIS-IV (adults) WISC-IV (kids) WPPSI-IV (pre-school) |
|
|
domains of intelligence |
working memory verbal ability visual-spatial abilities processing speed general knowledge |
|
|
intelligence quotient |
mental age divided by chronological age times 100 |
|
|
working memory |
ability to hold small bits of info for about 12 seconds and manipulate it |
|
|
verbal ability |
cognitive ability to use and understand language
|
|
|
visual-spatial abilities |
organizing visual info into meaningful patterns and understanding how they might change as they rotate and move through space
visual memory |
|
|
processing speed |
ability to quickly and efficiently process relatively simple cognitive tasks fluently and automatically
measured through timed tasks
people with ADD have low processing speed |
|
|
general knowledge |
semantic memory - memory of facts and principles
can be very culturally biased |
|
|
qualities of IQ |
generally stable across lifetime no fundamental differences between sexes highly correlated with things like school and work achievement, social success, health, and crime |
|
|
rage of most IQ's |
85-115
(68%) |
|
|
IQ < 70 |
mentally disabled
genetic and environmental causes |
|
|
IQ > 130 |
intellectually gifted
represents potential, but intellectual determination is important |
|
|
savant syndrome |
possession of exceptional mental ability in one or more narrow areas, but limited general intelligence |
|
|
norm |
IQ tests need to have a normative or standard representative sample that represents the population |
|
|
standardized |
exact same procedures so that nobody gets and unfair advantage or disadvantage |
|
|
reliability |
ability of a test to yield the same score each time a test is given to the same person
test-retest, split test in half, equivalent forms |
|
|
validity |
ability of a test to measure what it says it measure |
|
|
cognition |
thoughts that are in your head
the process of thinking or mentally processing information |
|
|
thinking |
an internal representation (mental expression) of a problem or situation |
|
|
units of thought |
images concepts language |
|
|
images |
picture-like, mental representations |
|
|
concepts |
ideas that represent categories of objects or events |
|
|
language |
consists of words or symbols and rules for combining them |
|
|
mental images |
can be used to make a decision, change feelings, improve a skill or prepare for some action, aid memory
size of mental image effects thinking |
|
|
process of mental imagery |
brain area where memory is stored is activated
signal is sent to visual cortex
image is then created in visual cortex |
|
|
kinesthetic images |
created from muscular sensations
help us think about movements and actions
practice and imagining yourself doing something can improve your skills |
|
|
the stroop effect |
speed of processing theory - interference occurs because the words are read faster than the colors are named
selective attention theory - interference occurs because naming colors requires more attention than reading words |
|
|
problem solving |
mechanical solution understanding heuristics insight |
|
|
mechanical solution |
solving a problem by trial and error or guiding your thinking by a learned set of rules |
|
|
understanding |
deeper comprehension of the nature of the actual problem
usually accomplished by thinking out loud |
|
|
heuristics |
rule of thumb
a way of reducing all possible solutions to a seemingly infinite number of possibilities to a much more manageable number
increases odds of success but does not guarantee it |
|
|
insight solutions |
a sudden mental reorganization of a problem that makes the solution obvious |
|
|
fixation |
tendency to repeat wrong solutions or faulty responses especially as a result to becoming blind to alternatives |
|
|
functional fixedness |
a rigidity in problem solving caused by an inability to see new uses for familiar objects
Duncker's candle problem |
|
|
expertise |
based on acquired strategies and specific organized knowledge
allows for more automatic processing
10,000 hours of practice to become an expert |
|
|
automatic processing |
fast, fairly effortless thinking based on similar problems |
