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131 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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LAB 4
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The Stroop Effect
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What is the Stroop Effect?
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The performance deficit one experiences when something you do automatically interferes with something else you are trying to do that is more attentionally demanding (a "controlled" process).
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Who created the Stroop Effect
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J.R. Stroop(1935)
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Explain the 'color demonstration' of the Stroop Effect. Explain why reading is harder when the color and word describe 2 different things.
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It is easier to name the color in the congruent condition (word and color match) than it is to name the color in the incongruent condition (word and color conflict) because reading is more automatic than perceiving and naming colors.
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Congruent Condition
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Word and Color match
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Incongruent(conflicting) condition
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Word itself does not match the color
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Color Naming Control
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Subject asked to name the color of shapes ('x's, 'o's) to control for effect words introduce into the study.
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Word Reading Control
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Subject asked to read the colorless (white) word to control for the effect colors have on the study.
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Why does the Stroop effect occur?
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Occurs when there is a conflict or competition between "capacity limited(processes that require attention) and non-"capacity" limited (tasks that can proceed without attention) tasks. Priority is given to one task or the other.
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What are the two types of Cognitive Processes
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Automatic and Controlled
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Examples of Automatic Processes
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Intuitive, Effortless, Fast, Not capacity-limited, does not require attention, difficult to control or modify.
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Examples of Controlled Processes
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Reasoned, effortful, slow, capacity-limited, requires attention, flexible and rule-governed.
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Four main findings from the Stroop Effect
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1. Word reading is much faster than color naming; 2.Words interfere with color naming(conflict/incongruent condition);3. Colors don't interfere with word reading(no difference between conflict and congruent in word reading);4. Interference is greater than facilitation(when word matches color(facilitation) you can name color faster but there is a greater time lag when word conflicts with color)
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Other types of Stroop
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Spatial Stroop; Auditory Stroop; Emotional Stroop
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Spatial Stroop
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spatial orientation(position of words in a box) and orientational words(right, top, left)
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Auditory Stroop
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Directional commands v. Location of the commmands "Raise the hand on the same side as the sound"
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Emotional Stroop
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name color of words that are emotionally charged (it takes more time to name the color when words are emotionally charged than it takes when the words are not emotionally charged)
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Briefly describe process of experiment
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"hungry" subject was told to identify the color of two sets of words; non food and food words. Then subjects were fed popcorn and "sated" and told to identify the color of two sets of words: non food and food words. The reaction time(the time it took for ea. subject to name the color) was measured after each condition. An emotional stroop measures whether emotional reaction to food words when hungry will increase reaction time.
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How would Stroop be different for a very young child?
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Reading is still very controlled for a young child and is not yet an automatic process. There may be less of a difference between interference and facilitation.
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Describe Hypothesis for the lab
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If a peson is hungry their reactin time will be higher in processing the clor of the "food words". If the subject is less hungry the reaction time will be smaller ni processing the color of the "food words"
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Operational def of 'hunger'
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Feed one group to assure that they are satisfied. Hunger is not being sated, not eating the popcorn.
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What conditions were tested
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Food words/Hunger, Food words/No Hunger, Nonfood words/Hunger, and Nonfood words/ No Hunger
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What results were found?
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When subjects were hungry it took them longer to read the control words than it took to read the "food words". This was unexpected. However, the reaction time overall went down after people were sated.
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Was the hypothesis supported?
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it was supported in that the reaction time was decreased from the time when subjects read "food words" and were hungry to when they read "food words" and were no longer hungry. However, we expected reaction time for "food words" when not hungry to be higher than reaction time for control words when not hungry, it was not.
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LAB 5
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WORKING MEMORY
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What is working memory?
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Working memory is the filter through which information from the senses is channeled and prepared for storge in long-term memory. "erasable mental blackboard"
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Sensory Memory v. Working memory
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Sensory memory has an infinitely large capacity in the short term while workign memory does not.
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Uses for Working memory
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allows you to hold information briefly in you r mind and manipulate it for comprehension, reasoning, and planning.
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What are some characteristics of working memory?
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limited capacity and quick loss of information .
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Digit Span Task
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Tests capacity for memorizing digits. It can only hold 7 +/- 2 digits
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What does Baddeley's model for working memory consist of?
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Three parts in his model: 1. visuospatial sketchpad; 2. phonological loop; 3. central executive
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Phonological Loop
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used to rehearse verbal information(anything that can be spoken, including numbersand phonemes) in order to keep it in working memory. According to Baddeley it is found in the temporal lobe.
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Word Length Effect
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Longer words take up more space in working memory than shorter words. The digit span of bilingual speakers is lower when they read numbers in Welsh than when they read them in english because it takes longer for the "inner voice" to rehearse the numbers in Welsh.
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Long Term Memory
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Relatively limitless an dpermanent storage facility for information already processed through sensory and working memory. After rehearsal info goes to Long term memory where it stays and is reorganized from time to time. When needed it is called back into working memory for manipulation.
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visuospatial sketchpad
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usd to store visual and spatial material. A "drawing pad in your mind" . Less understood than the phonological
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Central executive
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Manages awareness of info in working memory and also controls what is maintained in working memory by shifting attention between the 2 tasks. Functions automatically, we have no control over it. Ex:picturing an elephant involves the visuospatial sketchpad(which brings the image into your mind) as well as the central executive (which makes you aware of that image).
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Proposed locations of the parts of working memory
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Phonological Loob(temporal lobe/auditory cortex); Visuospatial Cortex (occipital lobe/visual cortex); Central Executive(frontal lobe)
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Broca's area
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responsible forspeech
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Wernicke's area
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responsible for verbal comprehension
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Describe interactions in Working memory
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Phonological information must travel to the central executive first and then over and visuospatial info must do the same to get to the phonological loop. Phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad do not directly communicate with one another(Baddeley's hypothesis)
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Phonlogical similarity effect
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there is a greater number of error when trying to remember letters that rhyme(T, V, G, B) than there are when trying to remember letters that do not rhyme (A, F, Y, R)
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visual mapping
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Task performed in visuospatial sketchpad. Uses minds eye to create image of something in your head. Think about Princeton campus. Now in your mind draw a line between Green Hall and Frist. Now draw a line between Green Hall and the Dinky station. Does it take longer to draw the second line? (it should). If so, this shows your visuospacial sketchpad at work (visual imagery approximating real distance).
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distracter task
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a task designed to shift attention from what preceded it. Used to keep participants unaware of connection btwn 2 tasks or to keep them from suspecting the true hypothesis of the study
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Example of a phonological and a visuospatial distracter
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Phonological(counting backwards from 100 by 3's); Visuospatial(completing a maze puzzle)
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Interaction
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the level ofone factor is dependent on the level of the other. When there is a reaction any discussion of findings must mention both factors
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Decay Hypothesis
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rehearsal is needed to keep information in working memory.
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dual task paradigm
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procedure that requires an individual to perform two tasks simultaneously. reading poetry and riding a bike is no problem but reading poetry and writing an essay is a little difficult.
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latin square
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table filled with different trials in such a way that each trial occurs exactly once in each row and exactly once in each column. Important in this study that every subject have a different trial order so an ordering confound is not introduced. randomizes tasks.
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Describe 3 graps in an interaction.
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1. Main effects. overall between men and women both movies get so-so ratings and are rated similarly by men and women (horizontal lines) however when ratings broken down by gender you see women rated romance movie higher and men rated mutant movie higher. Looking at the main effects was misleading but finding an interaction was key (must chart, gender, film, and rating to see the interaction).
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Hypothesis for the study
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If the phonological loop is not directly connected to the visuospatial sketchpad then memory for one type of information should not be affected by a task involving the other.
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Articulatory suppression effect
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memory for verbal material impaired when people asked to say something irrelevant aloud. Assumed to block the articulatory rehearsal process, thereby leaving memory traces in the phonological loop to decay.
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Main effect
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effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable. Sometimes this does not tell you all you need to know, so look at interaction to better see how variables interact.
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LAB 6
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JUDGMENT
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Type 1 error
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False positive. Mistake that there is a statistical difference when in truth there is no statistical difference. Ex: a +pregnancy test when you are not pregnant
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Type 2 error
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False negative. Failure to find significance when it actually does exist in the world. Ex: a (-) pregnancy test when you are actually pregnant
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Bounded rationality
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Perfectly rational decisions are not always feasible in practice due to finite computational resources available. we make shortcuts to make up for limited capacity and as a result of these shortcuts there can be error in our design.
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memory based inference
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when asked "what is the temperature on Halloween?" the memory/instant that you recall will determine your assessment(if the halloween you remember is cold then you will remember halloween being cold)
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anchoring/adjustment
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when primed with a number you will use that number as an anchor for your estimate
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Satisficing
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"we settle for finding a satisfactory way to answer a question. Rather than searching for the ideal or optimal method" (just to get it over with)
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elimination by aspect
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depends on order of the cues; giving a priority to one attribute. get a different result depending on which order items are sampledin (when looking through choices you will take the first thing that fits your criteria. There may be more than one option that fits your criteria but if it is not listed first you will not choose it)
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error due to noise
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naturally occurring error due to the fact that the predicter variable cannot perfectly predict outcome even when they are used correctly
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error due to inconsistency
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human prediction will not always supply uniform weight to predicer variables(more weight given to SAT scores over HS GPA; can be inconsistent/weight given shifts)
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error due to lack of knowledge
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may not know appropriate way to weight a predicter given an outcome. This error can be reduced if we get info about a subject or about average predictions of a group.
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total error
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the difference between the actual values and the human predicted values.
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Wisdom of the crowd
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averaging the weights of many to better predict what one person would think (daily uses in democracy, movie review)
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Dalton's Wisdom of the crowd effect
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the more people you have to average the closer you get to an accurate measure
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Prediction markets
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put a cash value on an asset and put a prediction on what will happen. Ex: contract for mccain and obama-the monetary amount put on ea. Of the contracts will help predict the outcome.
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Wisdom of the individual(as a crowd)
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If an individual is asked to make a judgment a number of times in slightly different ways the individual should gain a higher accuracy over a number of trials because they can sample dif. Cues each time they are asked and can make a more informed decision.
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Goldman Algorithm
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series of questions used to diagnose myocardial infarction. In studies people w/o any medical training correctly diagnosed just as many cases, and sometimes more cases, than trained physicians(why? Amateurs don't have any competing information so it is easier for them to make a pure decision)
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LAB 7
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SOCIAL INFLUENCE
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purpose of the lab
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what is the most effective way of persuading people to fill out the surveys?
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Liking-based persuasion
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people are more likely t agree to comply with a request if the request comes from a liked source. Behaviors that make an individual more well-liked lead to a corresponding increase in the persuasiveness of that individual
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Self enhancement
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a liking based persuasion that involves the persuader trying to become more liked by appearing more attractive/sociable--physical grooming, smiling, appropriate attire-- to lead to increased liking and increased compliance with requests.
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other enhancement
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liking based persuasion that involves the persuader trying to be more liked by ingratiating herself to the target--flattery, brown nosiing, showing interest in the target. Can lead to increased liking and increased compliance w/requests
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consistency based persuasion
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persuastion technique that takes advantage of desire for consistency. because people like to have stable beliefs, preferences, and traits, a way of persuasion that sets up a situationwhere complying with a request will lead one to believe they are behaving in a consistent manner while refusign the request would be inconsistent.
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Foot in the door
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consistency based technique involves making people feel as though they are generally heplul people by first asking for a trivial favor that the subject is likely to comply with and then asking for a larger favor(desired outcome) which the subject finds difficult to refuse because it would be inconsistent with primed self-perception.
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lowballing
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consistency based technique involves getting a person to agree to a reasonable request and then revising the request towards the desired outcome. Ex: people who sign up for 11am appointment that is rescheduled to 7am are more likely to show up to a 7am appointment than those who are asked to come to 7am appointment initially
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Reciprocity-based persuasion
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"I'll scratch your back if you scratch mine" make concessions so that somebody else will make concessions in return
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door in the face
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reciprocity based technique begins by asking for much more than persuader really wants. After request is rejected persuader "compromises" by reducing request to the actual desired outcome. Target will likely comply to this reasonable request.
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that’s not all
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reciprocity based technique. Persuader begins by asking target to comply w/desired request but for only a fraction of compensation that persuader is hoping to offer. Persuader then "compromises" by increasing compensation to appropriate level. Target will likely want to reciprocate by complying.
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foot in the mouth
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reciprocity based technique. Takes advantage of the tacit reciprocity engendered by a social relationship. Involves establishing a relationship so subject feels an obligation to comply with a request. Can be as trivial as exchanging names ore establishing common ground(both from NJ)
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scarcity based persuasion
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uses value of rarities (loss & scarcity) to persaude people to comply.
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playing hard to get
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scarcity-based technique
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deadline technique
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scarcity-based technique offers only a limited time to comply with the request after which the request will be withdrawn. Plays on notion of temporal scarcity
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script/norm based persuasion
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uses lack of attention or use of scripts on the part of targets in order to gain compliance.
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mindlessness
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script/norm based technique in which persuader offers vacuous justification for the request which adds persuasiveness for a target who fails to deeply process the justification. Ex: "may I cut in line because I need to make copies"
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pique technique
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script/norm based technique. Perwuader attempts to grap the target's attention and focus it on the request to remove chance of mindless non-compliance. Once target considers message he will be more likely to comply. Ex: beggar asking for 37 cents.
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suggesting norms
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script/norm based technique. Persuaders who suggest social norm are more likely to have targets comply. Ex: alumni aid noting that the majority of alumni donate to their alma mater.
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What does the chi square of independence test?
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statistical test used to examine differences with categorical varaibales such as religion, political preference, etc. used when examining hypotheses using such variables.
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What conclusions can be made basedon the chi square test
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estimates how closely an observed distribution matches an expected distribution; 2. estimates whether two random variables are independent.
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When is chisquare used
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when dv of compliance is binary (either yes or no answer)
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null hypothesis
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two variables are independent, they have no relationship. If p value is less than .05 then varibales are related otherwise there is no relationship.
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LAB 8
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IMPLICIT ASSOCIATIONS
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social cognition
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how people think about themselves in the social world
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IAT(what is it? What does it measure?)
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Implicit Associations Test. measures implicit attitudes and beliefs that people are either unwilling or unable to report. uses reaction time to measure association(because even if you know what's being tested and don't want to show how you feel about it, it is very difficult to control reaction time)
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Schemas
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Concept/expectations/pre-conceived ideas of what's about ot happen.
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measuring stereotypes
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a generalized(sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) priming (response competition/facilitation): expose someone to something ( a word or image) that has a lot of information and preconceived notions attached to it to provoke a certain response. ex: give people crossword with words relating to old age buried in it as a result people walk more slowly after the experiment.
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Stereotpyes
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cues you use to put people into groups (gender, race, clothes, age, etc.)
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Categorization
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mental structure people use to organize knowledge around themes or topics.
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Implicit v. Explicit attitudes
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Implicit(you will act on prejudices that you won't admit to having or aren't even aware of having) vs. explicit(attitudes you admit to having and will share when asked about them)
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Priming
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investigates what memories are automatically activated when the subjects are exposed to something before making a decision/they are primed.
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T-test
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assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different fromeach other. Appropriate whenever you want to compare the means of two groups. If there is a lot of variation, we are less certain and t-value will be small. If t-value is large you are more confident that there is a real difference between incongruent and congruent conditions.
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2 Types of Cultures
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Individualist and collectivist
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Individualist
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(w.Europe, America) personal freedom, debate, curiosity about the world are valued. Discover physical world and its causes by scientific observation,focused on debate, individual is a decision maker.
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Cultural psychology
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people are fundamentally conditioned by their sociocultural context in which they wre raised; culture is a human construction.
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Collectivist
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(e. Asia): reciprocal social oblicatino(you do things for the group & the group does things for you) and in group harmony, group is the primary decision making forcus
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Scool of Fish study
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(Morris & Peng 1994). Individual cultures think the lone fish is a feeder fish while collectivist cultures think lone fish is an outcast fish (one describes situation by attrbute of the individual fish while other describes situation in terms of the group). U.S. described individual character aspects of murderer, china described social pressures that made murderer commit crime.
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Social desirability
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participants know what is and what is not socially desirable so they may not be honest about certain of their beliefs that are considered socially undesirable.
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implicit v. explicit measures
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measures(actions) that you make based on either implict or explicit attitudes. [explicit measure: on a scale of 1 to 10 how racist are you; implicit measure:IAT test]
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prejudice
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an unjustifiable(and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Usually involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
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reaction time
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how you measure association(fater reaction time=stronger association)
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Representativeness
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heuristic wherein people assume commonality between objects of similar appearance, or between an object and a group It appears to fit into. While useful in every day life, it can also result in errors.
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Incongruent v. Congruent conditions
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all the terms conflict (ex: young, bad & old, good) v. all the terms agree (ex: young, good & old, bad)
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LAB 9
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PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY
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psychophysiology
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the study of the relation between physiology and psychology. Involves studying the way functionsof the body reveal states of the mind.
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physiology
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the study of functions of the body
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arousal
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heightened level of attention, associated with fight or flight. Characterized by dilating pupils, sweat, increased heart rate all of which help you take in more information
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sympathetic nervous system
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division of the autonomic nervous system (part of peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs(ex. Heart) and arouses the body, moblizing its energy in stressful situations.
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baseline
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level of arousal without any stimulus(use this to gauge exactly how aroused subject is)
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galvanic skin response(gsr)
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measures the electrical resistance of the skin. Heart rate is another indicater often used in combination with GSR. Changes in these measures presumably indicate guilty feelings or fear associated with being caught
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polygraph tests
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measures and records physiological responses such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin conductivity while subject answers a series of questions on the thoery that false answers will produe distinctive measurements.
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startle habituation
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mediator stands behind subject, at unnanounced moment mediator claps hands loudly by the subject's head and repeats, notes GSR
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cognitive load response
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allow subject to relax, ask them to count through a difficult sequence9backwards from 100 in 3's), not e GSR
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emotional valence response
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think of 6 verbal prompts that will elicit particular emotions (2 positive, 2 negative, 2 neutral) in your subject. Allow 30 secs between reading prompts, observe GSR
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basic polygraph test-the lying game
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works under assumption that when people lie they feel guilty about being deceptive and worried about being caught in the lie. Both factors lead to emotional arousal even in psychophysiological measurements. Subject reads 3 statements as though they are all true and the testers guess which answer was a lie.
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controlled polygraph test-the envelope game
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similar to basic only attempts to use more controls in determining when a person's arousal level is different enough from normal to be confident that it is truly a difference. Gather baseline and arousal levels and determine whether response is closer to 'baseline' or 'aroused' baseline. person takes an envelope and is asked a series of questions about what was in it the response is compared to the 2 baselines.
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guilty knowledge test-the picture game
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assumes that there is psychophysiological arousal in response to info we recognize. Does not test lies directly but tests whether a person knows info that he professes not to know. Subject is shown picture but operator is not. Then the subject is asked which picture they saw and may even be shown the pictures over again. chanes in the GSR should indicate which picture they saw.
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polygraphs as lie detection devices
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the polygraph is an unreliable and invalid method for determining truth.
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under what circumstances could lie detection devices be fooled?
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changes in polygraph can indicate anxiety, guilt, fear, stress, etc. that are not related ot guilt or innocence. Ex. Guilty can control arousal by biting their tongues or using imagery, tack in one's shoe during baseline can obscure differences, if the person is a psychopath or has an absence of emotion response due to guilt, drug induced state, brain surgery that changes psychophysiological response
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lack of real world validity
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little evidence of effectiveness for polygraphy in catching terrorists or spies, 27 inmates who had already freely confessed their guilt were taught in 20 minutes how to beat the polygraph-23/27 succeeded, evidence of a high rate of false positives--up to 50%
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