Psy 101 Ch. 8

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Chapter 8

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Learning

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learning

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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

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associative learning

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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli 9as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) ex: lightning & thunder come together. Over time we wince when we see lightning because we anticipate thunder

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classical conditioning

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a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals and unconditioned response (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimules: also pavlovian or respondent conditioning

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Observational Learning

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learn by watching others exepriences and examples ex: animal watches another solve a puzzle he will solve it more quickly

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behaviorism

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the view that psychology 1. should be an objective science that 2. studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1. but not with 2.

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unconditioned response (UR)

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in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus(US), such as salvation when food is in the mouth. ; US - food and UR-salivation

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response ex: Food is the US that triggers the UR of salivation

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conditioned response (cr)

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in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (cs) ex: salivation in response to the cs of a ringing bell

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US) comes to trigger a conditioned response: example heretofore neutral bell ring becomes the CS when associated with food and produces the CR of salivation

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Acquisition

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the initiial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with and unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

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extinction

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the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an us does not follow a cs; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

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generalization

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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. Ex: toddlers afraid of cars will also fear trucks and motorcycles, in this way it can be adaptive

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discrimination

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in clasical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal and unconditioned stimulus ex: pit bull makes heart race, gold retriever will not. Allows us to limit our learned responses to appropriate stimuli

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describe timing requirements for the initial learning of a stimulus-response relationship

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a CS should be presented about half a second before a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. Supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive

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how can cognitive processes affect classical conditioning

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condition princeiples are influenced by our thoughts, perceptions, and expectations. Humans learn when to 'expect' an US(food) and their awareness of link between stimuli and responses can weaken associations

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how can classical conditioning be used to improve human health

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used in treatment programs for those recovering from alcohol and other drug use. Cigarette smokers told to inhale pepper whenever they smoke and soon they associate sneezin with smoking and will not smoke anymore.

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"Little Albert"

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Watson idea that human emotions and behaviors are mainly a bundle of Conditioned Responses. Everytiime "little albert" was shown a white rat they struck a hammer behind a steel bar behind the child's head. Albert began to associate fear with the rat. He also showed generalization of his CR by reacting with fear to rabbits, dogs, and a sealskin coat but not to dissimilar objects ilke toys.

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Pavlov's experiment

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1. began trying to study the digestive system of dogs; noticed that after presenting dog with food for a series the dog would salivate on sight or smell of the food or event the person who brought the food or the sound of their approachign footsteps; just before placing food in teh dog's mouth to cause salivation pavlov sounded a tone, after several pairings of tone and food the dog began salivating to the tone alone in anticipation.

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Operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if folloed by a punisher

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respondent behavior

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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus(such as salivating in response to meat powder and later in reponse to a tone) ; skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning

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operant behavior

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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. Learning associations between its behavior and resultant events.

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Thorndike's law of effect

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences bome less likely i.e. rewarded behavior is likely to recur

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operant chamber

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a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.

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shaping

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an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior ex: give rat food whenever it approached the bar, then only give food when it touched the bar--successive approximations(reward responses that are ever0closer to final descired behavior and ignore other responses)

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reinforcer

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in operant conditioning, any event that strenghens the behavior it follows

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positive reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a resoponse, strengthens the response; add a desirable stimulus (getting a hug; receiving a paycheck)

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negative reinforcement

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increasing bheaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthest the response (note: the negative reinforcement is not punisment) ex: remove an aversive stimulus (fastening seatbelt in order to turn off beeping

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primary reinforcer

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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need i.e. getting food when hungr or being relieved of electric shock are innately satisfying

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conditional reinforcer

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a stimulus that gain its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer es: if a rat lears that light reliably signals that food is coming the rat will work to turn on the light ex: cash is satisfying because we have learned to associate it with more basic rewards

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Learning occurs rapidly but so does extinction. Immediate reinforcers ex: nicotine addict's cigarette + learning is rapid; - extinctino is also rapid if rewards cease. Preferrable until a behavior is learned

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partial(intermittent) reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. Ex: slot machines reward gamblers occasionally and unpredictably. They keep trying, sometimes interminably. or child who throws a tantrum and receives what she wants will continue throwing tantrums for the intermittent reinforcement.

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fixed-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses; 1 reinforcer for every 30 responses.

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variable-interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time periods ex: "You've got mail" that sounds after you wait for new e-mail

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punishment

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an event that decreases the behavior that it follows ex:

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cognitive map

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a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. Ex: after exploring a maze(without award), rat's acts as though they have learned a cognitivie map of it. When put in the maze with food reward they perform as well as rats that have been reinforced with food for doing the maze.

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latent learning

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learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Ex: children may learn from parents but don't demonstrate the knowledge until later when needed.

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intrinsic motivation

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a desire to peform a behavior for its own sake ex: people who work and play for the pursuit of enjoyment, self-expression or challenge

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extrinsic motivation

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a desire to performa behavior due to promised rewards of threats of punishment.

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positive punishment

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administering an undesirable consequence ex: spanking

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negative punishment

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withdrawing something desirable ex: taking away a favorite toy

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how to punishment and negative reinforcement differ

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punishment(both positive and negative) seek to decrease the frequency of a behavior while negative reinforcement(such as taking aspirin) removes something undesirable(headache) to increase the frequency of behavior

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Why may punishment not be the best behavior control technique

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punishment may include suppressing rather than changing unwanted behavior. Teaching aggression, creating fear, and encouraging discrimination(so undesirable behavior appears when punisher is not present), and fosters depression and feelings of helplessness

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How do latent learning and the effect of external rewards demonstrate that cognitive processing is an important part of learning?

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latent learning indicates that we can learn from experience without requiring reinforcement. Extermal reward can also undermine interest and pleasure in activity (I'll give you a dollar if you color for an hour; wll be resistant to color if there is no reward offered) weakens idea that behavior that are awarded will always increase in frequency.

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how do biological predispositions place limits on what can be achieved through operant conditioning

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predispose organisms to learn accociations that are naturally adaptive. Training that attempts to override these natural tendencies will probably not endure because animals will revert back to their biologically predisposed patterns

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Controversy over Skinner's views of human behavior

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underestimated the importance of cognition and biological constraints on learning. Also debates over nature of human freedom and the strategies and ethics of managing people

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

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School: teachers use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors. Interactive software and Webs sites provides immediate feedback to students. Sports: coaches reward players for small improvements in order to build self-confidence. Work: boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. home: control our energy usage by comparing recent consumption with past consumption. Parents: reward behaviors they consider desirable but not those they consider undesirable.

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Major Similarities Between Operant and Conditional Conditioning

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both forms of associative learning; both involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discriminatino; both are influenced by cognitive processes and biological predispositions

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Differences between Operational and Classical Conditioning

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classical-an organism associates different stimuli that it does not control and responds automatically while in operant conditioning, an organism associates its OWN behaviors with their consequences.

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Modeling

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the process of observinga nd initiating a specific behavior

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mirror neurons

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frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable initiation, language learning, and empathy. Ex: same neurons fire when one monkey sees what another monkey does that fire when that monkey himself performs the task. "monkey see, monkey (neurons) do!" ;

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prosocial behavior

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positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. Ex: gandhi, mlk.

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describe process of observational learning

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mirror neurons in the frontal lobe fire when we perform certain actinos or when we observe someone else performing those actions

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Bandura's findings on what determines whether we will imitate a model

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Bandura demonstrated that we are likely to imitate actions that go unpunished. We tend to imitate models we perceive as similar to us, successful, or admirable. Ex: Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment. "is that a gun!?"

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Impact of prosocial modeling

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children will imitate what a model says and does whether behaviro is prosocial or antisocial. If models' actions are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe

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Why can't correlations prove that watching violent TV causes violent behavior.

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Correlations show relationships but not direction fo the influence. Violence viewing and violence behavior are definitely linked but that does not prove that watching violent TV causes children to become more violent. On the contrary, children who are violent may just enjoy watching violence on TV or there may be a third factor that causes them to both behave violently and to prefer to watch violent programs.

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Experimental Evidence that demonstrates cause-effect link

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some participants view violence and others do not; later, given an opportunity to express violence the people who viewed violence tend to be more aggressive and less sympathetic. Initiation and Desensitization seem to contribute to the violence effect.

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Explain the Blackbox

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behaviorist approach which holds that the mind is a black box. There is a stimulus (a monkey in the brain) and a response) ultimate questions, what is the stimulus and what is the response? They do not care about the process in between (this approach is not as common today because more people are moving towards cognitive)

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How does the media use classic conditioning

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US=girl UR=positive thoughts; CS=clothing CR=positive thoughts/desire for the clothing

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Classical Conditioning and Drugs

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cocaine users begin to associate the place where they take the drug with the feeling of being high. US=cocaine; UR=loss of homeostasis: CR: physical environment; CR=loss of homeostasis. The place where you take the cocaine triggers a downer (in the body) automatically. Most overdoses take place in a different place. The body does not automatically counteract the high by inducing a downer but the person takes just as much cocaine--it is too much for the body to handle

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Pigeons and Operational Conditioning

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manequins in uniform of enemy, pigeons were rewarded for landing on enemy(positive reinforcement); rewarded for pecking out their eyes-project pigeon! Failed :( also used by the coast guard because they have a special acuity for the color orange. Trained pigeons to peck in direction of orange life preservers.

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Interval

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amount of time spent @ something

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ratio

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number of times you do something

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Learned Helplessness

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Prevent a dog from escaping by shocking him and eventually he will stop trying to get away. Even without the presence of the shock. Applications for abused children and wives.

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Hebbian Theory of Learning

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The more frequently two objects re paired, the greater the association.

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Rescorla-Wagner Model

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the amount of association increases relative to the surprise of the pairing: you learn more if you are more surprised by the outcome.

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Explain one behavior that undermines the blackbox theory

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Overjustification. Children who are rewarded for playing with crayons no longer want to play with crayons without the reward present. Once you have paid them for it, they don't want to do it anymore. At this point you must look to cognitive strategies.