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119 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Chapter 2
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Woo! Woo! Woo!
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Phrenology
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claim that bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and our character traits
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Biological Psychology
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a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. interplay of our biology and behavior and mental processes
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neuron
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a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
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Dendrite
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the busghy, branching extensions of a neuron that receives messages and conducts impulses toward the cell body
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Axon
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the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. Often long unlike dendrites
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Motor neurons
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neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
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myelin sheath
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a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; allows greater transmissino speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
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Action potential
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a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms into and out of channels in the axon's membrane; action potential is an all or none response
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Describe the charges of the interior and exterior of the axon
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fluid interior of a resting axon has an excess of negatively charged ions; the fluid outside of the axon membrane has more positively charged ions.
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Resting potential
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the state of the neuron when it has a positive-outside/negative-inside
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How can you describe the axon's surface
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it is selectively permeable-rsting axon has gates that block positive sodium ions
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What happens when a neuron fires
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1. axon opens its gates and allows positively charged sodium ions to flood through the membrane. This is called depolarizaton 2. Depolarization causes the axon's next channel to open and the next(another action potential is produced further down the axon) 3. Sodium/potassium pump transports sodium ions back out of the cell 4. by the time the action potential reaches further sections, the first section has completely recharged
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Refractory Period
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resting pause during which the neuron pumps the positively charged ions back outside, reinstating the negative inside of the axon, and gives the neuron the ability to fire again.
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Threshold
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the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse (if excitatory minus inhibitory signals exceed this threshold an action potential will be signaled)
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Explain the all or none characterizaton of action potential
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No matter how much the stimulus exceeds the threshold, the neuron's reaction will not be any more or less intense. The neuron either fires or it does not.
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Synapse
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the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft. Discovered by Charles Sherrington
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Neurotransmitter
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chemical messenger that traverses the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
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Reuptake
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process by which excess neurotransmitters are reabosrbed by the sending neuron
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Acetylcholine(Ach)
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one of the best understood neurotransmitters; enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction; malfunction: With Alzheimer's disease Ach producing neurons deteriorate--muscles cannot contract.
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Dopamine
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Influences movment, learning, attention, and emotion. Malfunction: excess dopamine receptor activity is linked to schizophrenia. Parkinsons is a result of an absence of dopamine for the brain
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Serotonin
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Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Malfunction: undersupply linked to depression. Prozac raises serotonin levels
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Norepinephrine
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helps control alertness and arousal. Malfunction: undersupply can depress mood
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GABA
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a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; malfunction: undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
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Glutamate
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major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. Malfunction: oversupply can overstimulate brain, producing migraines or seizures.
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endorphins
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"morphine within" natural opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. Released in response to pain and vigorous exercise Explains "runners high", and indifference to pain in some severely injured people.
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agonist
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excites. It is similar enough to neurotransmitter to mimic its effects on the receiving neuron. Morphine mimics the action of endorphins
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Antagonist
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inhibits. Has a structure similar enough to neurotransmitter to occupy its receptor site and block its acton, but not similar enough to stimulate the receptore. Curare poisoning paralyzes its victims by blocking Ach receptors involved in muscle movement.
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Blood-Brain barrier
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enables btrain to fence out unwanted chemicals circulating in the blood. Ex. Giving parkinson's patient dopamine does not help because dopamine cannot cross the blood-brain barrier. Some chemicals however can surpass this barrier-L-dopa for instance, which can be converted to dopamine enables people to regain muscle control
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Why do researcheers study other animals to garner info about human neural processes
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other mammals and simple animals have similar neural systems to humans
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How do nerve cells communicate?
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1. action potential reaches the end of an axon(axon terminals) 2. Release of neurotransmitters is stimulated 3. Neurotransmitters(chemical messengers) carry a message from the sending neuron across a synapse to receptor sites on receiving neuron. 4. the sending neuron normally abosrbs excess neurotransmitter molecules in teh synaptic gap(reuptake) 5. the receiving neuron, if the signals from that neuron and the others are strnog enough, generates its own action potential and relays the message to other cells.
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nervous system
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the body's speedy electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
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central nervous system
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brain and spinal cord
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peripheral nervous system
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links the centrllal nervous system with the body's sense receptors, muscles, and glands
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Nerves
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neural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles glands and sense organs; part of PNS such as the optic nerve
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3 types of neurons through which info travels in the nervous system
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1.sensory neurons 2. motor neurons 3. interneurons
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Sensory Neurons
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Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system
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Interneurons
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central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
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2 components of the PNS
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somatic and autonomic
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Somatic Nervous System
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the division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system
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Autonomic nervous System
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the part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs(such as the heart). Has 2 divisions: parasympathetic and sympathetic
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parasmpathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. Decreases heartbeat, lowers blood sugar.
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Sympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. Accelerates heartbeat, raises blood sugar, and cools with perspiration.
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Reflex
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a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. A single sensory neuron is excited by some stimulus and passes a message to an interneuron in the spinal cord. The interneuron activates a motor neuron causing some motor reaction.
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pain reflex
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neural activity excited by hot flame via sensory neurons to interneurons in your spinal cord. Interneurons respond by activating motor neurons to the muscles in your arm. Wy it feels like jerking away of hand is involuntary
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neural networkds
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interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results.
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explain how neural networks work with regard to learning
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the cells in each layer of a neural network connect with various cells in the next layer. Learning occurs as feedback strengthens connections that produce certain results. Ex: piano practice builds neural networks. Neurons that fire together wire together!
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how are reflex pathways different than neural networks
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Reflex pathways are automatic and inborn responses to stimuli, they do not rely on conscious decisions made in the brain. In contrast, neural networks are clusters of neurons that together share a special task. This network strengthens with use (learn frome xperience). each neural network connects with other neural networks performing dif. tasks
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Endocrine System
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the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
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hormones
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chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another. Some are chemically identical to neurotransmitters.
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adrenal glands
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ordered by the autonomic nervous system, a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinheprine(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (nonadrenaline) which help to arouse the body in times of stress; increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar
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pituitary gland
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pea-sized structure located int eh core of the brain, where it is controlled by the hypothalamus. Releaases hormones that influence growth and also regulates release of hormones by other endocrine glands. It is the most influential gland in the endocrine sytem. master gland whose master is the hypothalamus
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explain the feedback system
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the brain's hypothalamus influences the pituitary gland which influences other glands which release hormones which in turn influence the brain. Ex. Brain's hypothalamus causes pituitary to trigger sex glands to release sex hormones which in turn influence brain and behavior
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Lesion
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tissues destruction. A brain lesion is naturally or expirementally caused destruction of brain tissue
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electroencephalogram(EEG)
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an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. Analogous to studying a car engine by listening to its hum but an be helpful if computer filters out the brain activity unrelated to the stimulus.
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PET(position emission tomography) scan
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a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. Based on the fact that active neurons use glucose when they fire.
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MRI(magnetic resonance imaging)
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a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain.
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fMRI(functional MRI)
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a technique for revealing blood flow and teherefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMri scans show brain functions
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Brainstem
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the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swelss as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions; brain stem is also the crossoverpoint where most nerves to an d from each side of the brain connect with the body's opposite side
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pons
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above the medulla; helps coordinate movements
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medulla
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the base of the braistem; controls heratbeat and breathing
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reticular formation
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"netlike" a finger shaped network of neurons that extends from the spinal cord up to the thalamus which plays an important role in controlling arousal. As spinal cord's sensory input travels up to the thalamus, it passes through the reticular formation which filters incoming stimuli and relays important info to other areas of the brain.
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explain the study that determined the function of the reticular formation
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Giuseppe Moruzzi and Horace Magoun electrically stimulated a cat and found that it produced an awake and alert animal; when they severed the cat's reticular formation from higher brain regions, keeping surrounding sensory pathways intact, the cat lapsed into an everlastign coma. conlusion: reticular formation involved in arousal.
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thalamus
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On top of the brainstem "sensory switchboard", joined pair of egg-shape structures; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. Thalamus:sensory input::london: england's trains-hub through which traffic passes en route to various locations.
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cerebellum
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extending from rear of brain stem, "little brain" processes sensory input and coordinates movement output and balance, judge time, modulate emotions, discriminate sounds and textures, coordinates voluntary movement(beckham)
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Limbic system
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a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggressiona and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
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Amygdala
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two lima bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system. Influence aggression, fear, and emotions.
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What would happen if you lesioned the amygdala in a cat? If you stimulated it?
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lesion-becomes placid and mellow; stimulate-the animal becomes aggressive, prepares to attack and hisses also can be stimulated to cower and act fearful
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hypothalamus
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a neural structure lying below (hypo means below) the talamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion. Master of the pititary.
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explain Olds "pleasure center" experiment
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electrode incorrectly placed in a region of the hypothalamus and the rat kept returning to the place where it would be stimulated by this electrode. Later discovered other reward centers. Pushing a pedal would result in the reward center stimulation and rats would do anything, even starve, in order to get this stimulation
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reward deficiency syndrome
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gynetically disposed deficiency in the natural brain stystems for pleasure and well-being that leads people to crave whatever provides that missing pleasure or relieves negative feelings
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cerebral cortex
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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemisphere; the body's ultimate control and information processing center
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Glial Cells
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cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons "neural nannies" m provide nutrients and insulating myelin, and mop up ions and neurotransmitters. Ratio of glia to neurons is higher in smarter people.
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frontal lobe
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the portoin of the cerebral cotex lying just behind the forehead; involve din speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.
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parietal lobes
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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
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occipital lobes
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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head includes the visual areas, which receive visual info from the oppositie visual field
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temporal lobes
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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying ruoghly above the ears; includes the auditory areas. Each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear
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motor cortex
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area at the rear of frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. Different parts stimulate different parts of the body
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sensory cortex
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area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
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association areas
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areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functinos such as learning, reembering, thinking, and speaking
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explain the case of Phineas Gage
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his frontal lobes were severely damaged in a railroad acccident and although he was able to function afterwards his personality was markedly different.
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aphasia
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impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to the Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
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Broca's area
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controls language expression--an area of the fronta lobe, usually in the left hemisphere that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
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Wernicke's area
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controls language reception--a brain area invovled in language comprehension and expressino; usually in the left temporal lobe
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plasticity
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the brain's capacity for modification as evident in brain reorganization following damage(especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development. Ex; loss of a finger will result in increased sensory input from the adjacent fingers. If one hemisphere is damaged early in life, the other will pick up many of its functions
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corpus callosum
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the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. This is severed in those suffereing from seizures
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split brain
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a condition in which the 2 hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus calossum) between them.
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Describe the 5 brain areas used when you read a sentence aloud
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1. visual cortex registers words as visual stimuli; 2. the angular gyrus transforms those visual representatinos into auditory codes; 3. Wernicke's area interprets those codes and sends messages to 4. Broca's areas which controls the motor cortex 5. which creates the pronounced words.
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What has split brain research concluded
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in most people the left hemisphere is the more verbal while the right excels in visual perception and the recognition of emotion. Reveals lateralization or hemispheric specialization.
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Relationship between Left Handedness and Mortality
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the percentage of lefties decreases sharply with age, suggesting that they are at a higher risk of accidents. Ex: southpaw employees using the drill press had a blocked view if they operated the machine with their left hand as opposed to their right
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Issues in Neuro Methods
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1. Spatial Resolution; 2. temporal resolution; 3. invasiveness; 4. cost
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Spatial resolution
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how close in physical prximity you can get to the brain area
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temporal resolution
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how close in time you can get to when neurons fire
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invasiveness
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the extent to which foreign substances are introduced to the body during the study
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Gogli Stain
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shows you the anatomy of neurons
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Nissl stain
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shows you the number of neurons
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Broadman Area
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brain is not uniform, different cells are in different places. The numbered areas are "borders" in the brain
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single cell recording
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electrodes placed in a brain to observe which cells fire when yo interact with certiain bodily behaviors. For instance, you put an electrode on the sensory cortex to see if cells fire when the color green is shown. Used to identify what particular cells will respond to
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single cell stimulation
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activate an individual cell and observe the subsequent behavior. James Olds is an example of this--reward center
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Strokes and 2 types
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Interrupt blood flow to the brain. Ischemic(blocked artery); Hemorrhagic(bursted blood vessel)
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Aspiration lesion
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vacuuming out part of the brain
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Electrolytic Lesion
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use electricity to "fry" out part of the brain
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Radio Frequency lesion
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use radio frequencies to "fry" out part of the brain
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neurochemical lesion
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drop chemicals into the brain to kill cells
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knife out lesion
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cut out physically a part of the brain
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cryogenic lesions
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freezes part of the brain until it thaws, when it thaws the animal can use that part of the brain again.
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Problem with lesion studies
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you can't be certain that the lesioned area itself is responsible for certain behaviors or if it is merely a step in the process. Ex: it could hinder motor neurons in the tongue but not actually affect ability to talk save for the inability to move the tongue
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Optical imaging
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measures light absorption associated with neural firing in brain areas
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MEG
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measures magnetic signals associated with neural firing in brain areas
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TMS
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sends current through the scalp to activate different neural regions
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Double Dissociations
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two tasks give, and each only activates one part of the brain
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Example of Double Dissociation
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malone: familiar and unfamiliar face recognition processing. Dif. Areas light up when you see mom vs. seeing prof. oppenheimer
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Voxelset Analysis
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an alternative to double dissociation it measures similarity of patterns across the whole brain.
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Astrocytes
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maintain blood-brain barrier; provide nutrients to neurons; sequester & release neurochemicals; clean up dead neurons; divide and produce new neurons & glia (stem cells)
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Oligodendrocytes
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produce myelin (fatty tissue that wraps around axons & speeds/facilitates transmission of impulses)
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saltatory conduction
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allows charge to jump from node to node and axon to axon
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Explain what happens to cells in a person with Alzheimers
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the disease destroys brain tissue beginning with the hippocampus; abnormal proteins develop in the brain and kill cells(amyloid plaque); progressive disease, more and more regions are afflicted with time; the proteins left behind by the dead neurons cannot be degraded;
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Ghost neurons
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astrocyte takes away all of the cell but the amyloid plaques remain, shaped like the cell but not functioning as one-ghot cells are in the way and no new neurons can form.
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Fusiform Gyrus
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Faces
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