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165 Cards in this Set

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Developmental psychology
The study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the lifespan.
Nature
Heredity imposes some limits on what a person can become.
Nurture
Home, education, nutrition, etc. can evoke positive and negative influences.
Resilience
The ability to bounce back.
Vulnerabilities
Difficult temperament, genetic disorders.
Protective factors
High intelligence, good coordination, easy-going personality.
Stages
Quantitative changes- height.
No stages
Quantitative changes- advancements in logical thinking.
Longitudinal study
Same group of participants is followed at different ages.
Cross-sectional study
Groups of participants of different ages are compared on various characteristics to determine age-related differences.
Germinal stage
From fertilization to implantation in wall of uterus.
Embryonic stage
From implantation to about the 8th week of pregnancy.
Fetal stage
Begins around 9th week and continues until birth.
Maturation
Changes that occur according to one's genetically determined biological timetable of development.
A newborn's vision:
Focuses best on objects 9 inches away; prefers color stimuli to gray (can't distinguish all colors).
Visual cliff
Apparatus used to test depth perception in infants and young animals.
A baby's hearing is:
better-developed than vision; that they turn their heads in the direction of a sound; having a preference for female voices; having a preference for familiar sounds.
Easy children
Characteristics include: having a pleasant mood, adaptable, and approaching new situations and people positively.
Difficult children
Characteristics include: having a generally unpleasant mood, negatively reacting to new situations and people; being intense in their emotional reactions and irregular in bodily functions.
Slow-to-warm-up children
Characteristics include: a tendency to withdraw; being slow to adapt; being somewhat negative in mood.
Contact comfort
Comfort supplied by bodily contact develops attachment; who provides nourishment is not as important as contact comfort.
Secure
When an infant shows distress on separation from his/her mother and happiness when she returns; uses his/her mother as a safe base for exploration.
Avoidant
When an infant does not show distress when mother leaves and are indifferent when she returns.
Resistant
When an infant may cling to his/her mother before she leaves and show anger when she returns; may push his/her mother away; does not explore environment when his/her mother is present; is difficult to comfort when upset.
Disorganized/ disoriented
When an infant may show distress when his/her mother leaves and alternate between happiness, indifference, and anger when she returns; may often look away from his/her mother or look at her with an expressionless face.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth thru 2 yrs.); 2. Preoperational Stage (2 thru 6 yrs.); 3. Concrete Operations Stage (7 thru 11 yrs.); 4. Formal Operational Stage (age 11 thru adulthood)
Sensorimotor Stage
Engages the world through the senses and motor behavior; development of object permanence (birth thru 2 yrs.).
Preoperational Stage
Development of language allows symbolic representation of objects and actions, but thought is limited by irreversibility, centration, and egocentrism (2 thru 6 yrs.).
Concrete Operations Stage
Able to perform logical operations tied to concrete objects or events; development of conservation (7 thru 11 yrs.).
Formal Operational Stage
Able to engage in abstract reasoning and apply abstract concepts and ideas (age 11 thru adulthood).
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Organization, Schemes, Assimilation, Equilibration, Accommodation
Organization
Mental process that uses specific experiences to make inferences that are generalized to new experiences.
Schemes
Mental frameworks for understanding or acting on the environment.
Assimilation
The process of incorporating new objects or situations into existing schemes.
Equilibration
Mental process motivating humans to keep schemes in balance.
Accommodation
The process of creating new schemes or modifying existing ones to account for new objects or experiences.
Object Permanence
Realization that objects continue to exist, even when they can no longer be perceived (sensorimotor stage).
Symbolic Function
The understanding that one thing can stand for another (preoperational stage).
Egocentrism
The tendency to see the world only from one's own perspective (preoperational stage).
Reversibility
Realization that any change in the shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentally.
Conservation
The ability to recognize that the quantity or amount of an object remains constant despite superficial changes in its outward appearance.
Imaginary Audience
Adolescents believe that they are or will be the focus of attention in social situations and that others will be as critical or approving as they are of themselves.
Personal Fable
An exaggerated sense of personal uniqueness and indestructibility. May be the basis for adolescent risk taking. Many believe they are somehow indestructible and protected from misfortunes that befall others.
Naive Idealism
A type of thought in which adolescents construct ideal solutions for problems.
Language Development
Cooing, Babbling, One-word Stage, Overextension, Underextension, Telegraphic Speech, and Over-regularization.
Overextension
Using a word, on the basis of some shared feature, to apply to a broader range of objects than is appropriate. Ex: Any man is "dada."
Underextension
Restricting the use of a word to only a few, rather than to all, members of a class of objects. Ex: The family poodle is "doggie" but the neighbor's Labrador is not.
Telegraphic Speech
Short sentences that follow a strict word order and contain only essential content words. Ex: "Mama drink milk."
Over-regularization
Inappropriately applying the grammatical rules for forming plurals and past tenses to irregular nouns and verbs. Ex: A child who uses words such as "goed" "comed" and "doed."
Socialization
The lifelong process of shaping an individual's behavioral patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes, and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society. Individualism and Collectivism.
Parenting Styles
Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, and Neglecting.
Authoritative
Parent is positively emotionally involved, a fair authoritative figure, and appropriately autonomous with their child.
Authoritarian
Parent is negatively emotionally involved, a forceful authoritative figure, and non-autonomous with their child.
Permissive
Parent is too emotionally involved, a weak authoritative figure, and is tolerably autonomous with their child.
Neglecting
Parent is not emotionally involved at all, an absent authoritative figure, and indifferently autonomous with their child.
Peer Relationships
At 3-4 years old, friendships begin. Early relationships based on peer activities. Middle childhood friendships based on mutual trust. Peer groups composed of same race, sex, and social class; model dress, behavior, and punishment for deviant behavior; measure to weigh own traits and abilities. Physical attractiveness is a major factor in peer acceptance; negative traits associated with unattractiveness. Neglected children. Rejected children.
Television in Child Development
Cognitive effects: infants and toddlers focus on different items than preschoolers. Social and emotional development: children imitate modeled aggressive behavior on TV; linked with sleep and obesity problems.
Culture
Microsystems, exosystem, and macrosystem.
The Lifespan Perspective
Developmental changes happen throughout the lifespan and that interdisciplinary research is required to fully understand human development.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
1. Individuals progress through eight psychosocial stages
2. Each one is defined by a conflict involving the individual's relationship with the social environment
3. Each must be satisfactorily for healthy development to occur
4. Adult personality foundations are laid in the four childhood stages
Trust vs. Mistrust
Depends on the degree and regularity of care, love, and affection they receive from the mother or primary caregiver. Basic trust is the cornerstone of a healthy personality (birth-1 yr.).
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Children demonstrate independence by saying "No!" Physical and mental abilities develop (1-3 yrs.).
Initiative vs. Guilt
Initiate activities, plan tasks, develop motor skills (3-6).
Industry vs. Inferiority
Children begin to enjoy and take pride in accomplishments. Sense of inferiority develops if a child is rebuffed by parents and teachers (6-11).
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Identity crisis should lead teens to an idea of how they fit into the adult world. A healthy identity leads to next stage (11-22).
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Leads to finding a life partner or acceptance of single life (22-40).
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Desire to guide the next generation via parenting, teaching, or mentoring (40-65).
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Acceptance of one's life in preparation for facing death (65+).
Identity Crisis
Identity Achievement, Identity Foreclosure, Moratorium, and Identity Diffusion.
Early Maturing Boys
Taller and stronger than peers, advantageous in sports, have a positive body image, feel confident, secure, independent, and happy.
Early Maturing Girls
Towers over peers, feel self-conscious about their developing body and size, are likely to develop eating disorders, and are likely to have early sexual experiences and unwanted pregnancies.
Most teen pregnancies...
Are to unwed mothers, occur after the age of 16, and more likely to quit school.
Less sexually active/experienced teens:
Attend religious services frequently, live with both biological parents, have authoritative parents, and have above-average academic achievement.
Moral Development
Preconventional Level, Conventional Level, and Postconventional Level.
Preconventional Level
Moral reasoning is governed by the standards of others rather than the person's own internalized standards of right and wrong; acts are judged as good or bad based on their physical consequences. "Obedience and Punishment Orientation" and "Instrumental Purpose Orientation."
Conventional Level
The person has internalized the standards of others and judges right and wrong in terms of those standards. "Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation" and "Authority or Law-and-Order Orientation."
Postconventional Level
Moral reasoning involves weighing moral alternatives and realizing that laws may conflict with basic human rights. "Social Contract Orientation" and "Universal Ethical Principles Orientation."
Emerging Adulthood
Period from late teens to early twenties. Individual options explored prior to adult role commitment.
Presbyopia
Lenses of the eyes no longer react for near vision (mid- to late-40's).
Menopause
Cessation of menstruation and reproductive capability. Occurs between ages 45-55.
Lifestyle Patterns in Adulthood
Singles - 27% of all households; Cohabitation - 4.7% of all households, higher divorce rate; Marriage - age of first marriage risen over the past 5 decades, 80% of adults will marry once, Benefits: economic and physical and mental health; Divorce - marriages between teenagers, nonreligious marriages with a pregnant bride, and those between children of divorced parents most likely to fail, women have reduced standard of living, most end up married again.
Myths of Middle Age
Stress overload and Empty Nest Syndrome.
Stress Overload
Balancing demands of work, home, family, and retirement.
Empty Nest Syndrome
Parents appreciate reexamination of life and identity.
Dementia is characterized by...
An impaired memory and intellect, altered personality and behavior, and is the most common form of Alzheimer's Disease.
Dementia afflicts...
5-8% of adults over age 65, 15-20% of adults over age 75, 25-50% of those over 85.
Senility
Caused by physical deterioration of the brain: cerebral arteriosclerosis (hardening of brain arteries), chronic alcoholism, and irreversible damage from small strokes.
Alzheimer's Disease is characterized by...
A progressive deterioration of intellect and personality and a widespread degeneration of brain cells.
At first, Alzheimer's victims show...
Gradual impairment in memory and reasoning, loss of efficiency in carrying out everyday tasks, and difficulty finding way around in familiar locations.
As Alzheimer's progresses, patients...
-Become confused and irritable
-Wander away from home
-Become increasingly unable to take care of themselves
-Develop unintelligible speech
-Lose the ability to control bladder and bowel functioning
-May not respond to spoken words
-No longer recognize even spouse or children
Stages of Grieving
Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression or Sadness, Acceptance, and Bereavement.
Bereavement
The period of mourning that follows the death; sometimes lingers long after the person has gone.
Gender
Psychological and sociocultural definition of masculinity or femininity. Based on expected behaviors for females and males.
Biological Sex
Physiological status as male or female.
Sex Chromosomes
Pair determines biological sex of person. XX = females; XY = males.
Gonads
Sex glands - ovaries in females, testes in males
Androgens
Male sex hormones; determines embryonic development of male or female genitals.
Primary Sex Characteristics
Internal and external reproductive organs - the genitals.
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Appear at puberty - pubic hair, breasts, chest hair, etc.
Gender Roles
Cultural expectations imposed on men and women to behave in ways deemed appropriate for their gender.
Gender Identity
The psychological sense of maleness and femaleness.
Transgendered
A mismatch in which one's gender identity is inconsistent with one's chromosomal and anatomic sex
Psychoanalytic Theory
Gender role development guided by unconscious emotional processes; children want to bond with opposite sex parent.
Learning Theories
Gender roles are learned behaviors imitated and reinforced by parents, peers, teachers, etc. Research supports learning only as a part of development.
Gender Schema Theory
The belief that children form mental representations or schemas of masculinity and femininity, which they then use as a basis for organizing their behavior and evaluating their self-worth.
Evolutionary Theory
Natural selection shapes mating strategies to foster the survival of offspring; men tend to prefer youthful, attractive mates; women tend to seek men who have the skills to provide for their physical needs.
Stereotypes
Assumption that all members of a group are alike; rely upon schemas, dichotomous statements result. Ex: "Men do X, but women do Y."
Sociosexual Orientation
Individual differences in tendency to prefer either: unrestricted sex (without the necessity of love) or restricted sex (only in the context of a long-term, loving relationship).
Sexual Response Cycle
Typical pattern of human sexual response in both males and females.
Homophobia
Intense, irrational hostility toward or fear of homosexuals; most people opposed to discrimination based on sexual orientation.
Sexual Dysfunctions
Persistent or recurrent problems with sexual interest, arousal, or response.
Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder
Low or nonexistent sexual desire or interest in sexual activity.
Sexual Aversion Disorder
Aversion to and active avoidance of genital contact with sexual partner; emotions like anxiety, fear, or disgust; may stem from sexual trauma (e.g., rape or incest).
Female Sexual Arousal Disorder
May not feel aroused from sexual situations; unable to achieve or sustain adequate lubrication-swelling response.
Erectile Dysfunction
Inability to have or sustain an erection firm enough for coitus.
Female Orgasmic Disorder
Persistent delays in reaching or inability to reach orgasm despite adequate stimulation.
Male Orgasmic Disorder
An absence of ejaculation or ejaculation only after prolonged period.
Premature Ejaculation
Orgasm or ejaculation occur with little stimulation.
Social Psychology
Attempts to explain how the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others influences the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals.
Social Perception
The process we use to obtain critically important social information about others.
Primacy Effect
The tendency of an overall impression to be influenced more by the first information that is received than by information that comes later.
Attributions
The assignment of a cause to explain one's own or others behavior.
Situational (External) Attribution
Attributing a behavior to some external cause or factor.
Dispositional (Internal) Attribution
Attributing a behavior to some internal cause. Ex: personal trait, motive, or attitude.
Actor-observer Effect
Tendency to attribute one's own shortcomings to situational factors and the behavior of others primarily to dispositional factors.
Fundamental Attribution Error
Tendency to attribute others behavior to dispositional factors without regard to situational influences.
Self-serving Bias
Tendency to take credit for our accomplishments and to explain away our failures or disappointments.
Proximity
Physical or geographic closeness.
Mere-exposure Effect
Tendency to feel more positively toward a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure to it; advertisers rely on it to influence people, food, songs, and clothing styles.
Similarity
We tend to pick friends from the same age, gender, race, and socioeconomic class; we tend to choose friends and lovers with similar views on things most important to us; similar interests and attitudes toward leisure activity make leisure-time activity and time spent together rewarding.
Reciprocity
We tend to like others who like us back.
Factors Influencing Attraction
Physical attractiveness (strong tendency towards and symmetrical faces and bodies more attractive and sexually appealing) and Halo Effect.
Halo Effect
Tendency to assume that a person has generally positive or negative traits after observing one major positive or negative trait.
Matching Hypothesis
The belief that people tend to pair off with others who are similar to themselves in physical attractiveness and other characteristics.
The Three Components of Attitudes
A positive or negative evaluation of persons, objects, or issues.
Cognitive Dissonance
The unpleasant state that can occur when people become aware of inconsistencies between their attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior; results from a desire to maintain self-esteem and reduce discomfort.
Persuasion
A deliberate attempt to influence the attitudes and/or behavior of another person. Source variables, message variables, and recipient variables.
Conformity
Behavior change designed to match the action of others.
Social Norms
The attitudes and standards of behavior expected of members of a particular group.
Group Think
The tendency of members of a decision-making group to be more focused on reaching a consensus than on critically examining the issues at hand.
Compliance
Acting in accordance with the wishes, suggestions, or direct requests of other people.
Foot-in-the-door Technique
Strategy designed to gain a favorable response to a small request at first. Intent to get a person to agree to a larger request later.
Door-in-the-face Technique
Someone makes a large, unreasonable request, expects the person will refuse, then person will be more likely to agree to a smaller request later.
Social Identity
Individuals join with others to construct a group identity in order to insulate themselves from stressors.
Deindividuation
A process in which individuals lose their sense of personal identity as a result of identification with a group.
Prosocial Behavior
Behavior that benefits others, such as helping, cooperation, or sympathy.
Altruism
The pure, unselfish behavior to help others without expecting anything in return (empathy and commitment).
Empathy
The ability to take the perspective of another person.
Commitment
More likely to behave altruistically when commitment is high. Ex: more likely to donate a kidney to a family member than a stranger.
Social Responsibility Norm
The society rule that people should help those who need them to help.
Bystander Effect
As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases, the probability that the victim will receive help from them decreases.
Diffusion of Responsibility
Tendency for each group member to dilute personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members; makes each person feel less compelled to act than if he/she alone bore the entire responsibility; when others seem calm, common to conclude nothing is wrong and no intervention is necessary.
Aggression
The intentional infliction of physical or psychological harm on others.
Possible Biological Causes of Aggression
Heredity, Low arousal, High testosterone, Neurological disorders, and Alcohol Abuse.
Frustration-aggression Hypothesis
Frustration, pain, heat, any other unpleasant experience -> anger -> emotional aggression.
Social Learning Theory of Aggression
People learn to behave aggressively by observing aggressive models and by having their aggressive responses reinforced.
Sexual Aggression
Any kind of sexual contact in which one or more participants are either unable to give consent or are forced into participation. Includes: sexual assault, rape, date/acquaintance rape, and sexual abuse.
Prejudice
A generalized attitude toward members of a social group.
Stereotypes
Generalized beliefs about members of a social group. Includes the assumption that the members of such groups are usually all alike.
Discrimination
Behavior (usually negative) directed toward others based on their group membership.
Realistic Conflict Theory
The proposal that intergroup conflict, and negative prejudices and stereotypes, emerge out of actual competition between groups for desired resources.
In-groups
Social group with a strong sense of togetherness and from which others are excluded.
Out-groups
Social group made up of individuals specifically identified by the in-group as not belonging. Can lead to us-versus-them thinking, increasing competition, hostility, prejudice, discrimination, and even war.
Social Cognitive Theory
The mental processes that people use to notice, interpret, and remember information about the social world. Processes used to simplify, categorize, and order the social world are the same process that distorts our view of it.
Ethnocentricism
Believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups. Groups will have varying views of the same situation, both can be correct, just different.