Psy 100 Midterm 2

Front 1

Learning

Back 1

A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, and attitude.

Front 2

Learning is acquired through:

Back 2

Experience; cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation. Ex: infants do not 'learn' how to walk, as basic motor skills and maturation govern every species.

Front 3

An example of classical conditioning is:

Back 3

Pavlov's classical conditioning; classically conditioning a salivation response

Front 4

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Back 4

Stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without learning.

Front 5

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Back 5

Response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.

Front 6

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Back 6

Neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an UCS, becomes associated with it and elicits a CR.

Front 7

Conditioned response (CR)

Back 7

Learned response that comes to be elicited by a CS as a result of its repeated pairing with an UCS.

Front 8

Extinction

Back 8

Weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR as a result of repeated presentation of the CS without the UCS.

Front 9

Spontaneous recovery

Back 9

Reappearance of an extinguished response after exposure to the original CS following a rest period.

Front 10

Generalization

Back 10

Tendency to make a CR to stimulus that is similar to the original CS.

Front 11

Discrimination

Back 11

Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the CR occurs only to the original CS but not to similar stimuli.

Front 12

John Watson

Back 12

Emotional conditioning

Front 13

John Watson's "Little Albert"

Back 13

An emotional conditioning experiment to prove fear could be classically conditioned in 1919.

Front 14

Four major factors that influence classical conditioning:

Back 14

1. How reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus (How much you know ahead of time).

2. The number of pairings of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus (How often the CS and UCS are shown together)

3. The intensity of the unconditioned stimulus (How strong the stimulus is).

4. The amount of time that elapses between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus (How long the CS and UCS are/ are not shown together).

Front 15

Law of effect

Back 15

The consequences, or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened; trial-and-error learning. Ex: responses closely followed by "satisfying consequences" are more likely to be repeated; responses that have unpleasant consequences will be avoided.

Front 16

Operant conditioning

Back 16

A type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated in order to: increase or decrease the frequency of a response and shape an entirely new response.

Front 17

Reinforcer

Back 17

Any event that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probability that the response will be repeated.

Front 18

Positive reinforcement

Back 18

Pleasant or desirable consequence that follows a response.

Front 19

Negative reinforcement

Back 19

Termination of an unpleasant conditioning following a response.

Front 20

Primary reinforcer

Back 20

A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning.

Front 21

Secondary reinforcer

Back 21

Acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers.

Front 22

Shaping

Back 22

Consists of gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response.

Front 23

Punishment

Back 23

The removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a response.

Front 24

Positive punishment

Back 24

Behavior decreases from an added consequence.

Front 25

Negative punishment

Back 25

Behavior decreases from removing a consequence; usually involves the loss of something desirable.

Front 26

Cognitive processes

Back 26

Mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representations.

Front 27

Learning by insight

Back 27

The sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent.

Front 28

Latent learning

Back 28

Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so.

Front 29

Observational learning (modeling)

Back 29

Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior.

Front 30

Model

Back 30

A person who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated.

Front 31

Learning from Media

Back 31

Bandura demonstrated how children are influenced by aggressive models; video games.

Front 32

Information-Processing Theory

Back 32

Uses computer science to provide models to help psychologists understand the processes of memory.

Front 33

What are the three memory systems?

Back 33

Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Front 34

Sensory memory

Back 34

A temporary storage buffer that preserves sensory impressions for perhaps a fraction of a second to perhaps a few seconds.

Front 35

Working memory

Back 35

Subsystem used with understanding information, remembering information, solving problems, and communicating with others.

Front 36

Maintenance rehearsal

Back 36

Repeating information to keep it in short term memory.

Front 37

Elaborative rehearsal

Back 37

Relating new information to something that is already known.

Front 38

Long-term memory (LTM)

Back 38

The memory system with virtually unlimited capacity that contains vast stores of a person's permanent or relatively permanent memories.

Front 39

Subsystems of LTM (long-term memory) include:

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Declarative memory system (factual information), semantic memory (general knowledge, and stored undated), episodic memory (data recollections of personal experiences)

Front 40

Recall

Back 40

Producing required information by searching memory.

Front 41

Retrieval cue

Back 41

Any stimulus or bit of information that aids in retrieval.

Front 42

Recognition

Back 42

Identifying material as familiar or as having been encountered before; only requires that you recognize it, not recall all the information.

Front 43

Serial position effect

Back 43

For information learned in a sequence, recall is better for the beginning and ending items than for the middle items in the sequence.

Front 44

Primary effect

Back 44

Tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than the middle items.

Front 45

Recency effect

Back 45

Tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle.

Front 46

Context-dependent memory

Back 46

The situation where information is easier to recall when a person is in the same environmental context they were in when they learned it.

Front 47

Misinformation effect

Back 47

Misleading information supplied after the event confounds a witness' memory.

Front 48

Repressed memories

Back 48

False memories "recovered" by influence of suggestions; false memories created by repeated exposures to suggestions. Ex: a person asked to imagine a fictitious event may develop a false memory of the event.

Front 49

Infantile amnesia

Back 49

the inability to recall events from the first few years of life likely due to limited language and hippocampus development.

Front 50

Amnesia

Back 50

Partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or psychological cause.

Front 51

Anterograde amnesia

Back 51

Loss of memory of events occurring after brain injury or surgery; earlier and short-term memories generally intact.

Front 52

Retrograde amnesia

Back 52

Loss of memory for experiences that occurred shortly before a loss of consciousness.

Front 53

Dementia

Back 53

Degenerative brain processes diminish ability to remember and process information.

Front 54

Decay Theory

Back 54

The theory which explains forgetfulness being rapid at first (58% after 20 min. and 44% after 1 hour) then tapering off; Ebbinghaus's Curve of Forgetting.

Front 55

Encoding failure

Back 55

The situation in which information is not put into long-term memory.

Front 56

Interference

Back 56

Information or associations stored hinder the ability to remember it.

Front 57

Proactive interference

Back 57

Information or experiences already stored hinder memory.

Front 58

Retroactive interference

Back 58

New learning interferes with recall of previous learning.

Front 59

Motivated forgetting

Back 59

Protecting self from painful unpleasant memories via suppression or repression.

Front 60

Repression

Back 60

Removing memories of painful events from consciousness.

Front 61

Retrieval failure

Back 61

Not remembering something one is certain of knowing.

Front 62

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

Back 62

Knowing you have learned something but unable to retrieve it.

Front 63

Massed practice

Back 63

Learning in one long practice session without rest period.

Front 64

Spaced practice

Back 64

Learning in short practice sessions with rest periods in between.

Front 65

Cognition

Back 65

The mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information.

Front 66

Reasoning

Back 66

A form of thinking where conclusions are drawn from a set of facts.

Front 67

Reasoning by deduction

Back 67

Reasoning from general to specific; drawing particular conclusions from general principles.

Front 68

Reasoning by induction

Back 68

General conclusions are drawn from particular facts.

Front 69

Imagery

Back 69

Representation in the mind of sensory experience.

Front 70

Concepts

Back 70

A mental category used to represent a class or group of objects, people, organizations, events, situations, or relations that share common characteristics or attributes (concepts help us order our world and to think and communicate with speed and efficiency).

Front 71

Formal concept

Back 71

A concept clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or a classification system.

Front 72

Natural concept

Back 72

Acquired through everyday perceptions and experiences.

Front 73

Decision-making

Back 73

The process of considering alternatives and choosing among them.

Front 74

Systematic decision making

Back 74

Process of considering alternatives and choosing among them.

Front 75

Bounded rationality

Back 75

Boundaries or limitations around the decision making process prevent it from being entirely logical.

Front 76

Elimination by aspects

Back 76

A decision-making approach in which alternatives are evaluated against criteria that have been ranked according to importance.

Front 77

Heuristics

Back 77

A rule of thumb that is derived from experience and used in decision-making and problem solving, even though there is no guarantee of its accuracy or usefulness.

Front 78

Availability heuristic

Back 78

A cognitive rule of thumb that says that the probability of an event or the importance assigned to it is based on its availability in memory.

Front 79

Framing

Back 79

The way information is presented so as to emphasize either a potential gain or loss as the outcome.

Front 80

Representative heuristic

Back 80

Thinking strategy based on how closely a new object or situation is judged to resemble or match an existing prototype of that object or situation.

Front 81

Recognition heuristic

Back 81

Strategy in which decision-making stops as soon as a factor that moves one toward a decision has been recognized.

Front 82

Intuition

Back 82

Rapidly formed judgments based on "gut feelings" or "instincts;" usually based on a mental representation of the gist of a body of information rather than on its factual details

Front 83

Anchoring

Back 83

Overestimation of the importance of a factor by focusing on it to the exclusion of other relevant factors.