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233 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Why study child development?
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raising children, choosing social policies, understanding human nature
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Plato's views on child development
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Boys were particularly challenging. emphasized self-control and discipline.
Children were born with innate knowledge. |
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Aristotle's views on child development
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discipline is necessary. Concerned with fitting child-rearing to the needs of the individual child.
Blank State |
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Locke's view on child development
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Tabula rasa (like aristotle)
advocated discipline before freedom. gradually giving freedom |
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Rousseau's views on child psychology
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parents and society should give maximum freedom - learn from spontaneous interactions rather than being instructed.
no formal education until age 12 "the age of reason" |
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Freud
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biological drives exerted a crucial influence on development
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Watson
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children's behavior arises largely from rewards and punishments
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Nature
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biological endowment - the genes we receive from our payments
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Nurture
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the wide range of environmental, both physical and social, that influence our development, including the womb.
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Egocentric conversations
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Piaget pre-operational stage.
Two children speak, but talk about different things - unrelated to each other. ex. my dad's a policeman i have a big dog |
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Centration
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tendency to focus a single, perceptually striking feature of an object of event
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egocentrism
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tendency to perceive the world solely from one's own point of view
Ex. three-mountains task - choose the picture that the doll would see. they choose the one that looks like from their own perspective |
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symbolic representation
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the use of one object to stand for another, which makes a variety of new behaviors possible.
ex. making a gun out of two popsicle sticks. ex2. drawing v's for the leaves for flowers. |
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Conservation concept
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idea that merely changing the appearance of objects doesn't change their key properties
Ex. pouring into a longer, thinner cup. ex. changing the shape of playdo - not the same size. |
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Concrete operational stage
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about age 7- age 12. children begin to reason logically about the world.
Can solve conservation problems (math) Thinking systematically remains difficult ex. "make a graph" "make a chart - making what you're doing more concrete. |
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Seration
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ordering sticks from smallest to largest - picitol point
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pendulum problem
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compare motions of longer and shorter pictures turing oint
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Nature and Nurture
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Both genetics and environment effect how someone develops
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The active child
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children shape their own development. The extent to which this occurs increases as they grow older.
1. Attentional patterns 2. use of language 3. play older children choose their environments |
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continuous child development
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Age related change occurs gradually. Like a growing tree.
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discontinuous child development
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Children of different ages seem qualitatively different (like the change from a caterpillar to a butterfly)
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stage theories
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approaches that propose that development involves a series of discontinuous, age-related phase
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Piaget's theory of cognitive development
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four stages. sensorimotor (ages 0-2), preoperational (2-7), concrete operational (7-12), Formal operational (12+)
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cognitive development
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the development of thinking and reasoning
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Is development continuous or discontinous?
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depends on how you interpret the data and how often you are with the child.
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effortful attention
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Attention that takes effort. an aspect of temperament involving voluntary control of one's emotions.
ex. inhibiting impulses, controlling emotions, focusing attention. |
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neurotransmitters
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chemicals involved in communications among brain cells
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nature and nurture of effortful attention
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genes affect neurotransmitters. frontal lobe is still developing. experiences change effortful attention
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sociocultural context
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the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child's environment.
ex. chinese people sleep with their kids for a while while american kids are out after a short period of time |
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socioeconomic status (SES)
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a measure of social class based on income and education
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Werner study
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Kauai hawaii - studied all born and found 1/3 were resilient to the bad effects of poverty
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what kind of people overcome poverty?
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positive perseonal qualities such as high intelligence, easygoing personality, adaptability to change. A close relationship with at least one parent. a close relationship with at least one adult other than their parents.
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Scarr's four factors that can lead children from a single family to turn out very different from each other
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1. genetic differences
2. differences in treatment by parents or others 3. differences in reactions to similar experiences 4. different choices of environment positive reinforcement - cute, cuddly babies are more liked |
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preferential looking
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manner of research in which a card is split in half, one grey lines and one white. The baby will look at the grey lines. When they do look at these grey lines, the researcher knows that they can see.
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reliability
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the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior
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interrater reliability
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the amount of agreement in the observations of different rates which witness the same behavior
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test-retest reliability
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the degree of similarity of a child's performance on two or more occasions
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validity
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the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
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internal validity
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the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the variables that the researchers intentionally manipulated
ex. depression pill helps after two weeks - was it because of the pill or passage of time? |
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external validity
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the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research
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ways to gather data on children
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1. interviews
2. naturalistic observation 3. structured observation |
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structured interview
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A research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions
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clinical interview
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a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides.
if the child says something interesting, the interviewer can followup |
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What is the caveat of interviewing?
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Though it's quick and provides in-depth information about individuals, the answers are often biased.
They would avoid answering things that put them in a bad light. |
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naturalistic observation
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examination of ongoing behavior in an environment not controlled by the researcher
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When is naturalistic observation used?
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when the primary goal of research is to describe how children behave in their usual environments
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what are the limitations of naturalistic observation?
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it is hard to control for variables - context varies on many dimensions
behaviors occur only occasionally. |
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naturalistic observation
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examination of ongoing behavior in an environment not controlled by the researcher
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When is naturalistic observation used?
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when the primary goal of research is to describe how children behave in their usual environments
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what are the limitations of naturalistic observation?
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it is hard to control for variables - context varies on many dimensions
behaviors occur only occasionally. |
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Structured Observation
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a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each child and recording the child's behavior
ensures that all children's activities are observed in the same context - controlled. Not as natural, reveals less about the subject than interviews Ex. children complying to mother - picking up toys. |
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Correlation designs
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studies intended to indicate how variables are related to each other
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correlation
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the association between two variables
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direction-of-causation problem
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the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variable is the cause of the other
correlation doesn't imply causation |
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third-variable problem
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confounding variable
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experimental designs
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a group of approaches that allow interference about causes and effects to be drawn
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cross-sectional approach
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a research method in which children of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period of time
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longitudinal design
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a method of study in which the same children are studied twice or more over a substantial period of time
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microgenetic designs
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a method of study in which the same children are studied repeatedly over a short period of time
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counting-on strategy
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counting up from the larger addend the numer of times indicated by the smaller addend.
ex. 3+5. they say "5, 6, 7, 8" rather than "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8" |
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epigenesis
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the emergence of new structures and functions in the course of development (aristotle)
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gametes
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reproductive cells - egg and sperm - that contain only half the genetic material of all the other cells in the body
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conception
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the union of an egg from the mother and a sperm from the father
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zygote
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a fertilized egg cell
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embryo
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the name given to the developing organism from the 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development
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germinal period
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conception to 2 weeks - last until zygote becomes implated into the uterine wall. Rapid cell division takes place
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embryonic period
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3rd to 8th week major development occurs in all the organs and systems of body. cell migration, cell differentiation, and cell death. hormonal
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fetus
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9th week to birth
- continued development of physical structures and rapid growth of body. increased levels of behavior, sensory experience, and learning |
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stem cell
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embryonic cells which can develop into any type of body cell
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phylogenetic continuity
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the idea that because of our common evolutionary history, humans share many characteristics, behaviors, and developmental processes with other animals, especially mammals.
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apoptosis
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programmed cell death - helps with hands
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identical twins
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twins that result from the splitting in half of the zygote, resulting in each of the two resulting zygotes having exactly the same set of genes
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fraternal twins
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twins that result when two eggs happen to be released into the falopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two different sperm.
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neural tube
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a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord
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four major developmental processes transform a zygote into an embryo
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1. cell division
2. cell migration 3. cell differentiation 4. apoptosis |
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amniotic sac
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a transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus.
support system - protects the baby. |
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placenta
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support organ for the fetus; keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and mother separate, but is semipermeable. permits the exchange of some materials between them (oxygen and nutrients. then carbon dioxide and waste product goes out).
also produces hormones (estrogen and progesterone) |
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cephalocaudal development
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the pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head
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do babies develop faster earlier or later?
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earlier
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4 weeks after conception
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tiny curved body. several facial features. folds in the head. primitive heart already beating. arm bud and leg bud
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9 weeks
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bulging forehead - rapid brain growth. eyes and ears forming. internal organs are all present. sexual differnetiation has started. ribs visible. fingers and toes emerged.
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11 weeks
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clearly see the heart. ribs. major divisions of the brain.
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16 weeks
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fetus' movement have increased dramatically. chest makes breathing movements. some reflexes (grasping, swallowin, sucking. intense kicking. can tell if it's a girl or boy
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18 weeks
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covered in fine hair, greasy coating, sucking thumb
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20 weeks
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head-down position. facial expressions are present. rapidly puts on weight.
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28 weeks
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brain and lungs develop. fetus born here has a chance of surviving on its own. eyes can open. auditory system is functioning.
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when does movement first begin?
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5 or 6 weeks
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when does movement become like it is at birth?
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12 weeks
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what does most movement between 19 and 35 months involve?
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hand and mouth
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when does fetal breathing occur?
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as early as 10 weeks
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near the end of pregnancy, fetus spends most of its time doing what?
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sleeping
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baby sight and touch
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doesn't see much, but there is touch and moving around
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prenatal taste
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fetus swallows amniotic fluid.they like sweet tastes!
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prenatal hearing
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fetus responds to sounds at least from the 6th month. during last trimester, external noises elicit changes in fetal movement and heart rate.
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habituation
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a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation
baby's react to it!! |
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teratogens
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an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development
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sensitive period
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the period of time during which a developing orgqanism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors; prenatally, the sensitive period is when the fetus is maximally sensitive to the harmful effects of teratogens
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dose-response relation
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a relation in which the effectthe effect of exposure to an element increasess with the extent of exposure (prenatally, the more exposure a fetus has to a potential teratogen, the more severe its effect is likely to be).
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fetal programming
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later emergence of effects of prenatal experience. this is when experiences during the prenatal period "program the physiological set point that will govern physiology in adulthood."
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sleeper effects
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the impact of a given agent may not be apparent for many years.
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cigarette smoking tetratogen
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smoking = less oxygen. cancer-causing agents in tobacco.
consequence: retarded growth and low birth weight. linked to increase risk of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome, lower IQ, hearing deficits and cancer. |
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alcohol
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"most common human tetratogen"
fetal brain injury. mental retardation. alcohol crosses the placenta into the fetus's bloodstream. |
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fetal alcohol spectrum disorder FASD
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the harmful effects of maternal alcohol consumption on a developing fetus. fetal alcohol syndrom (FAS) involves facial deformities, mental retrdation, attention problems, hyperactivity.
FAE - fetal alcohol effects when people show some but not all symptoms of FAS |
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sensitive period - CNS
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2 wks, 6 wks, 38 wks
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sensitive period - heart
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2.5 wks, 6.5 wks, 8 wks.
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sensitive period - arms
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3.5 wks, 8 wks, 9wks,
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sensitive period - eyes
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3.5wks, 8.5 wks, 38 wks
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sensitive period - legs
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3.5 wks, 8 wks, 9wks,
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sensitive period - teeth
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6.5 wks, 9 wks, 19 wks
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sensitive period - palate
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6.5 wks, 10wks, 13wks
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sensitive period - external genetalia
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7.5 wks, 13 wks, 38 wks
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sensntive period - ear
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3.5wks, 12 wks, 17wks
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marijuana - teratogen
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affects memory, learning, visual skills
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cocaine - teratogen
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fetal growth retardation and premature birth. impaired ability to regulate arousal and attention. social deficits
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age - teratogen
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girls younger than 15, premature death
older women (30-40) chromosomal abnormalities |
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nutrition - teratogen
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malnutrition affects growth of brain.
malnutrition = underweight. malnutrition in last 3 months only slightly underweight |
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diesease - teratogen
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rubella early in pregnancy causes malformations, deafness, blindness and mental retardation.
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STDS = teratogen
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child can get the diesease
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maternal emotional state - teratogen
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not sure - but higher depression/anxiety = higher behavior problems in 4 year olds
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doulas
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individuals trained to assist women in terms of both emotional and physical comfort during labor and delivery.
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age of viability
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28 weeks - good chance of surviving
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structural abnormalities occur during...
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3-8 weeks
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State of arousal
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level of arousal and engagement in the environment, ranging from deep sleep to intense activity
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REM (rapid eye movement)
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active sleep state characterized by quick, jerky eye movements under closed lids and associatd with dreaming in adults
50% of a baby's slepe, but by 3 or 4, it declines to about 20% |
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non-REM sleep
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a quiet or deep sleep state characterized by the absence of motor activity or eye movements and regular, slow brain waves, breathing, and heart rate.
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autosomal stimulation theory
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the idea that brain activity during REM sleep in the fetus and newborn facilitates the early development of the visual system
ex. babies that are more visually stimulated sleep less |
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how many hours a day are spend in each?
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active sleep 8 hrs
quiet sleep 8 hrs crying 2 hrs active awake 2.5 hrs alert awake 2.5 hrs drowsing 1 hr |
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swaddling
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a soothing technique, used in many cultures, that involves wrapping a baby tightly in cloths or a blanket
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what soothes a baby
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rocking, singing, touch, swaddling, sweet things, sucking,
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colic
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excessive, inconsolable crying by a young infant for no apparent reason
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Infant mortality
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death during the first year after birth - rare in US. still prevalent. could be because of lack of prenatal care?
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low birth rate
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a birth weight of 5.5 lbs or less (2500 grams)
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premature
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any child born at 35 weeks after conception or earlier (as opposed to the 38 normal)
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small for gestational age
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babies that weigh substantially less than is normal for whatever their gestational age.
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developmental resilience
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successful development in spite of multiple and seemingly overhwelming developmental hazards
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genome
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complete set of genes of any organism
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polygenic inheritance
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inheritance in which traits are governed by more than one gene
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norm of reaction
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all phenotypes that can theoretically result from a given genotype in relation to all the environments in which it can survive and develop
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phenylketonuria (PKU)
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a disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolsm of phenylalianine - they cant' eat gum!
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MAOA
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x-linked gene known to inhibit brain chemicals associated with aggression.
both environment and the gene affect it. |
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behavior genetics
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the science concerned with how variation in behavior and development results from the combination of genetic and environmental factors
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heritable
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refers to any characteristics of traits that are influenced by heredity
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multifactorial
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refers to traits that are affected by a host of environmental factors as well as genetic ones
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family study
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compare characteristics within a family - do siblings act more alike than cousins?
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twin-study
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MZ twins are more alike than DZ twins
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adoptive study
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adopted children more similar to adoptive parents or biological
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adoptive twin study
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identical twins reared aparr compared to each other.
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heritability
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a statistsical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance on a trait among individuals in a given population that is attributed to genetic differences among those individuals
cannot tell about an individual, but instead a population of people |
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cell body - neuron
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contains the basic biological material that keeps the neuron functioning
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dendrites
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fibers that receive infput from other cells and conduct it toward the cell body in the form of electrical impulses
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axon
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a fiber that conducts electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons
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glial cells
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whit ematter - half of human brain. helps with formation of myelin sheath around axons
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myelin sheath
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insulates axons and increases speed and efficiency
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cerebral cortex
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the gray matter - plays primary role in what is thought to be particularly humanlike functioning, from seeing to hearing to writing to feeling emotions
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occipital lobe
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visual processing
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temporal lobe
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memory visual recognitoin, and emotion and auditory information
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parietal lobe
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spatial processing. involved in integration of sensory input with information stored in memory with information about internal states
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frontal lobe
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"executive" involved in planning ahead and has assosiation areas.
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association areas
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parts of the brain that lie between the major sensory and motor areas and that process and integrate input from those areas
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cerebral hemispheres
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two halves of the cortex
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corpus callosum
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a dense tract of nerve fibers taht enable the two hemispheres of the brain to communicate
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cerebral lateralization
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the specialization of the hemispheres of the brain for different modes of processing
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left hemisphere processing
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piecemeal,linear manner. logical analysis, language, sequential tasks
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right hemisphere processing
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holistic manner. deals with spatial information
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neurogenesis
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the proliferation of neurons through cell division
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ERP (event-related potentials)
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changes in the brain's electrical activity that occur in response to the presentation of a particular stimulus
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spines
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formations on the dendrites of neurons that increase the dendrite's capacity to form connections with other neurons
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myelination
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formation of myelin (a fatty sheath) around the axons of neurons that speeds and increases information-processing abilities
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synaptogenesis
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the process by which neurons form synapses with other neurons, resulting in trillions of connections
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synaptic pruning
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the normal developmental process through which synapses that are rarely activated are eliminated
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plasticity
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the capacity of the brain to be affected by experience
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experience-expectant plasticity
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the process through which the normal wiring of the brain occurs in part as a result of experiences that every human who inhabits any reasonbly normal environmetn would have
ex. voices, movement, manipulation. brain expects input to fine tune stuff. |
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sensitive period
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periods where the brain is particularly sensitive to ceratin things like an "open window" part of experience-expectant plasticity
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experience-dependent plasticity
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the process through which neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as a function of an individual's experiences
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secular trends
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marked changes in physical development that have occured over generations
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failure-to-thrive (nonorganic)(FTT)
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a condition in which infants become manlourished and fail to grow or gain weight for no obvious medical reason
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Four fundamental relations
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1. parent's genetic contribution to the child's genotype
2. contributions of a child's genotype to his or her own phenotype 3. contribution of the child's environment to his or her own phenotype 4. influence of the child's phenotype on his or her environment |
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fMRI (funcitoning magnetic resonance imaging
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powerful magnets to produce colorful images representing cerebral blood flow in different areas of the brain
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PET (positron emission tomography)
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uses radioactive material injected into the brain for diagnostic purposes
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visual cortex and prefrontal cortex peaks
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visual before prefrontal
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volnerability
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experience-expectant plasticity. if the expected experience is not available, as in the case of cognenital cataracts, development will be impared
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constructivism
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from birth onward, children are active mentally as well as physically, and theira ctivity greatly contributes to their own development.
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adaptation
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the tendency to respond to the demands of the environment in ways that meets ones goals
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organization
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the tendency to integrate particular observations into coherent knowledge
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assimilation
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the process by which peolpe translate incoming information into a form that fits concepts they already understand
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accomodation
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the process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in resopnse to new experiences
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equilibration
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the process by which children (or other people) balance assimilation and accommodation to creat stable understanding
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piaget's stages
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1. sensorimotor (0-2)
2. preoperational (2-7) 3. concrete opersational(7-12) 4. formal operational(12+) |
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qualitative change
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children of different ages think in qualitatively different ways
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broad applicability
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the type of thinking chracteristic of each stage influences children's thikniing across diverse topics and contexts
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brief transitions
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before entering a new stage, children pass through a brief transitoinal period in which they fluctuate between the stages
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sensorimotor stage (0-2)
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intelligence is expresssed through sensory and motor abilities
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peroperational stage(2-7)
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children become able to represent their experiences in language, mental images and symbolic thought
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concrete operational stage (7-12)
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children become able to reason logically about concrete objects and events
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formal operational (12+)
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peolpe become able to think about abstractions and hypothetical situations
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object permanence
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the knokwledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view
no sense of object permanence in sensorimotor stage |
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A-not-B error
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the tendency to reach for a hidden object where it was last found rather than in the new location where it was last hidden
sensorimotor state |
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constructivist - piaget
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depicts child as constructing knowledge for themselves
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sensorimotor birth-1
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infants begin to modify the reflexes
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sensorimotor 1-4
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infants begin to organize separate reflexes into larger behaviors, most of which are centered on their own bodies
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sensorimotor 4-8
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at the end, understand that objects do exist even when not seen
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sensorimotor 8-12
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A-not-B error. The tendency to reach where objects have been found, not hidden
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sensorimotor 12-18
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toddlers begin to actively and avidly explore the potential uses of objects
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constructivist - piaget
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depicts child as constructing knowledge for themselves
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sensorimotor 18-24
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infants become able to form enduring mental representations. deferred imitation - the repition of other peoples' behavior a substantial time after it occurred
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sensorimotor birth-1
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infants begin to modify the reflexes
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deferred imitation
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repetition of other people's behavior a substantial time after it originally occurred
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sensorimotor 1-4
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infants begin to organize separate reflexes into larger behaviors, most of which are centered on their own bodies
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symbolic representation
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the use of one object to stand for another
ex. popsicle sticks as a gun. |
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sensorimotor 4-8
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at the end, understand that objects do exist even when not seen
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egocentrism
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the tendency to perceive the world solely from one's own point of view
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sensorimotor 8-12
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A-not-B error. The tendency to reach where objects have been found, not hidden
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sensorimotor 12-18
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toddlers begin to actively and avidly explore the potential uses of objects
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sensorimotor 18-24
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infants become able to form enduring mental representations. deferred imitation - the repition of other peoples' behavior a substantial time after it occurred
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deferred imitation
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repetition of other people's behavior a substantial time after it originally occurred
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symbolic representation
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the use of one object to stand for another
ex. popsicle sticks as a gun. |
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egocentrism
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the tendency to perceive the world solely from one's own point of view
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centrism
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the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event.
focus on only one aspect |
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conservation concept
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the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not change their key properties
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faults in piaget
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1. depicts children's thinking as being more consistent than it is
2. infants and young children are more cognitively competent than piaget recognized 3. understates the contribution of the social world of cognitive development 4. vague about cognitive processes. - how does assimilation/accommodation work etc. |
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task analysis
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the research technique of identifying goals, relevent information in the environment, and potential processing strategies for a problem
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structure
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basic organization of the cognitive system, including it's main components and their characteristics
information processing |
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processes
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the specific mental activities such as rules and strategies that people use to remember and solve problems
information processing |
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problem solving
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the proces of attaining a goal by using a strategy to overcome an obstacle
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sensory memory
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the fleeting retention of sights, soundsm, and other sensations that have just been experienced
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long term memory
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information retained on an enduring basis
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working memory (short term)
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kind of workspace in which infrormation from sensory memory and long term memory is brought together attended to, and processed.
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basic processes
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the simplet and most requently used mental activities
associating, recognizing, recalling |
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encoding
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the process of representing in memory information that draws attention or is considered important
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rehearsal
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the process of repeating information over and over to aid memory
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selective attention
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the process of intentioanlly focusing on the information that is most relavent to the current goal
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overlapping-waves theory
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an information-processing approach that emphasizes the variability of children's thinking
ex. diagram - more strategies to solve something. arise at different times |
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why is planning difficult for young children/
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it requires inhibiting the disire to solve the problem immediately in favor of first rying to construct the best strategy.
2. they tend to be overly optimistic |
