Psc 101 Exam 2

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Ivan Pavlov

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Physiologist in Russia that received the Nobel Prize for work about the digestive system. Discovered Classical conditioning. Important ideas :

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B. F. Skinner

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Operant conditioning

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Paul Gold

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(examined the role of epinephrine and glucose on rat passive avoidance test - memory of drinking tunnel shock)

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Sally and Bennet Shawitz

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(examine fMRI and found female hemipheric symmetry in auditory association cortex)

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Sandra Witelson (studied sex difference in number of neurons in auditory association cortex)

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11% more neurons in auditory cortex of women

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Christina Williams (12 arm radial arm maze and the effects of aromatase inhibitor on male spatial maze learning behavior)

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12 arm radial arm maze. Males and females. Females tend to make more mistakes at first. Females use more signals to make decisions, both turning and relationships of light and dark and other stuff. Studied effects of aromatase inhibitor on male spatial maze learning behavior. Males castrated make female typical mistake.

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Robert Sapolsky (discussed baboon dominance hierarchy and cortisol levels)

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Walter Cannon (flight/ fight homeostasis= regulation)

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Hans Selye

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(general adaptation syndrome, alarm stage, resistance stage, exhaustion stage)

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Bela Bohus

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(oxytocin's affect on amnesia for shock experience in drinking tunnel in rats)

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John Vandenbergh

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interuterine position of mice and spatial behavior with 2M females adults as more male like in having large home ranges

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Doreen Kimura
sex differences in spatial cognition, picture perception, throwing

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females tend to incorporate landmarks in humans and rats (changes in larger scale patterns).

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Swen O. Ebbeson (Parcellation Theory of brain evolution)

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Timothy De Voogd and Fernando Nottebohm

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(effects of testosterone on canary singing and spine formation of the terminal dendrites of RA (vocal motor center) neurons

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Arthur P. Arnold

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(effects of sex hormones on bird brain development and song expression)

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Cara Wellman cort in rats for 3 weeks

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effects of 3 weeks of corticosterone injection producing dendritic growth in rat medial prefrontal cortex. Perhaps this is the mechanism by which increased anxiety increased wariness

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Rupshi Mitra (adults rats, and stress) open arm maze.

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In adult rats kept in a bag 2 hours a day, 10 days of stress increases the number of dendritic spines in the amygdala and increases fear in the open section of a dark maze, indicating increased connectivity of this emotions-generating brain structure. Amygdala has more connections. (actual stressor causes brain changes)

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Extinction

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Must have had learning previously, and you learn that the previously significant stimulus is no longer significant. This is not just the disappearance of the response but it is the activation of inhibition.

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Spontaneous recovery

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reemergence of a conditioned response which has been previously extinguished.

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Generalization vs. discrimination

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Generalization is responding to a stimulus similar to a CS with a CR proportional to how similar the new stimulus is to the CS. Discrimination is t

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Nondifferential training

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(CS+ reinforcement only), Differential

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Differential training

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(CS+ and CS - no reinforcement presented alternatively on trials) White and black robed men and the cheetah.

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reinforcer

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something that causes work

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positive reinforcer

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something you work to get

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negative reinforcer

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Something they will work to avoid.

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Primary reinforcer

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unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival

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Secondary reinforcer

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sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus which functions as a reinforcer.

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first-order

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CS-US (primary reinforcer) pairing

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second-order

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CS1 as secondary reinforcer paired with new CS2

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Classical conditioning

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animals that reflexively respond to inescapable stimuli.

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Interstimulus presentation intervals

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delayed, trace, simultaneous, backwards

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Trace conditioning

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Give stimulus after the US but it has to be fast, while the memory is a trace

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cumulative record schedule of reinforcement

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(fixed, variable ratios and fixed and variable intervals) rate of response (most important, whereas strength of response not typically measured) two-way causation affected by animal's motivation (hunger, fear) Reinforcement is emitted by response

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Positive reinforcer vs. negative reinforcer

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work to obtain vs work to remove

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Successive approximations

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Shaping a single behavior, chaining several behaviors into sequence followed by reward

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Aristotelian causes

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efficient (forces in system) material (state of system) final (goals or purpose of system) formal (Do not need to memorize)

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efficient (forces in system)

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energy in the system

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material (state of system)

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the hardware (axon)

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final (goals or purpose of system)

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the purpose, the good, or the end of something.

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formal (Do not need to memorize)

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whole system put together in time and space.

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3. Aristotelian causes

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a. efficient: force (e.g. a cue hits a ball and ball rolls) b. material: the state of the system, as affecting its behavior (i.e. a fulcrum effect) c. final: the teleological cause, the purpose or goal for which the action or event occurs d. formal: the organization of the system in time/ space,

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Swen Ebbeson's parcellation theory

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Specialization/ mutations in the pattern of connectivity of neurons, which may confer fitness on the animal. Related behavior that promotes fitness will spread through the population. (pattern of neuroactivity can evolve)

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C. Microcephalics

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(humans that can have brains smaller than chimpanzees): they can still do simple work and have speech abilities because the human brain has been trained by natural selection to have certain kinds of specialization. Despite small brains and chimp-sized neurons, those individuals that exhibit rudimentary talk must have intact "human" interneural connections in speech areas of the brain, that is, a human not chimp pattern of interneural connectivity. It is not size but the way that the brain is organized that matters.

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1. Bennet and Sally Shawitz (dimorphism and MRIs)

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found bilateral symmetry on functional MRIs in females, and not in males, indicating sex differences in neural organization and possibly information processing. Males more left sided. Auditory association cortex (women more bilateral). More complexity within and without this area for women.

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2. Sandra Witelson: (cadaveric neuron count)

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Looked at various layers in male and female brains, and counted the number of cells in the auditory association cortex. (Neurons are grouped functionally in columns, and generally connect more to neighboring, but not immediately adjunct columns.) Women showed a 17% increase of neurons in layer IV over males. This difference might improve precision in hearing, sound differentiation, etc.

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Effects of estradiol on hippocampal neurons

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(in vitro slices) Estradiol causes less inhibitory activity of interneurons that connect to large CA1 hippocampal neurons. As a result, the less inhibited CA1 neurons are more active and grow more dendritic spines on their dendrites. This might explain how developing male rats are affected by elevated estradiol (normally) and markedly reduced estradiol with aromatase inhibitor (Christina Williams's study of maze learning). Also, since hippocampal neurons are present before birth, this might also explain how female pups surrounded by male pups in utero acquire more male-like spatial abilities.

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Midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG)

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helps with pain analgesia

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Hypothalamus projections to PAG

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emission of beta-endorphins in PAG

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HPA axis (hypothalamic, pituitary, adrenal axis)

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Hypothalamus (regulates pituitary activity via CRH)

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Half life of epinephrine

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2 minutes

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Vasopressin benefits in stress response

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causes water uptake in kidneys, preventing dehydration

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oxytocin and amnesia

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Oxytocin promotes amnesia of painful childbirth experience. Suppresses amygdala and hence fear

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Midbrain periaquaductal gray (PAG)

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causes immediate heart rate, blood pressure increase and pain reduction

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Classical (Pavlovian) vs. operant (Skinnerian) conditioning:

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classical conditioning uses yoked animals that reflexively respond to inescapable stimuli. Responses are said to be elicited (one-way causation). Operant conditioning places the animal in a situation where it is free to act or not to act, as it chooses. Responses are said to be emitted (two-way).

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elicited vs emitted reponses

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elicited is connected with Pavlov and is one-way causation. Emitted is connected with Skinner and shows that they were free to act and is thus 2-way causation

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Habituation/ dishabituation.

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Habituation is the process of becoming accustomed to a stimulus (and reacting less). Dishabituation is the process of being shaken out of a process of habituation by a perceived change in the stimulus (renewed attention). Spontaneous recovery can occur after a process of habituation.

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Extinction occurs

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when a subject learns that a stimulus is no longer associated with a reinforcer, and there will be no more reaction. After a rest period, spontaneous recovery of response can occur.

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D. Conditioning schedules

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Delayed, Simultaneous,Trace, Backwards

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Delayed

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the CS is presented just before the US, and overlaps it

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Simultaneous conditioning schedule

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The CS is presented at the same time as the US

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Trace

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the CS is presented before the US, but not overlapping at all

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Backwards

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the CS is presented after the US (as in alarm calls in the wild: an animal calls and then its hearer scans)

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E. Differentiation vs. generalization

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reciprocals of the same idea. Differentiation is the ability of the subject to distinguish between, e.g., two tones (CS+, CS-). Generalization is the ability of the subject to generalize from having been conditioned with one tone to responding to any tone. The act of differentiation (produced by differential training) involves disregarding certain stimuli (CS-). This process is called condition inhibition.

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F. Higher order conditioning:

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second-order conditioning

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G. Skinner's apparatus

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Skinnerian researchers are generally more interested in rate of response (how fast and persistent lever pressing or key pecking and a departure from baseline under other manipulations) than in other details about behavior (like how hard a pigeon might peck at the key). Important diagram: see earlier notes.

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H. Reinforcement time schedules:

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the times at which a subject (in a Skinner box) will be able to obtain a reward.

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1. fixed ratio:

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a reward is available after a chosen number of times that the activity is performed, e.g. every 10 or 100 times

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2. variable ratio:

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a reward is available after a random number of times an activity is performed (the experimenter will set the relay to release. e.g., on average every 50 times, but reward might occur after the 5th, the 75th, the 33rd, the 10th time, etc). Both fixed and variable ratio schedules cause fast pressing or pecking and relatively fast extinction.

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3. fixed interval:

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a reward is available after a certain amount of time has elapsed (e.g. every 5 minutes). Notice the scalloping pattern this produces. Note: superstitious behavior can occur under this reinforcement schedule if animals are given rewards at fixed intervals (e.g., pigeons bobbing their heads, preening for food with the Skinner box delivering food automatically without key pressing) This information in italics was not discussed in your lectures

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4. variable interval:

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the most effective reinforcement schedule (this is the principle behind pop quizzes and gambling). A reward is available after a randomized amount of time (e.g., after 4 minutes, 10 minutes, 3 minutes, 7 minutes, averaging to a selected 6 minutes). This schedule produces a slow, steady pattern of behavior, and extinction takes a very long time to occur. This reinforcement schedule causes a persistent (steady) operant response with the slowest rate of extinction after reinforcement stops.

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I. Successive approximation:

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the process of shaping and chaining behavior. Shaping is the process of training an animal to do a behavior (i.e. rewarding a dolphin every time it jumps higher, and holding the fish higher each trial). Chaining is the process of training an animal to link together shaped behaviors into one long, consistent pattern of behavior (training a parrot to climb a ladder, push a wheel across a rope, then climb down again)

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A. Neuroendocrine system

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(the physiological process that produces hormones that regulate the body's response to stress): a (two-way) activating system adaptively designed to protect the body.

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Fast release during stress happens by . . .

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Spinal cord carries nerve impulse directly to adrenal medulla which releases epinephrine to release glucose

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C. Stress circuits: HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis).

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(takes a few minutes) stressor activates hypothalamus to release CRH which stims ACTH which stims cort from adrenal cortex which stims glucagon and inhibits insulin in the pancreas.

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D. The primary product the HPA and effects

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cortisol (a glucocorticoid). Cortisol has a half-life of about 2.0 hours, and plays a role in increasing glucose by stimulating the pancreas, thus decreasing production of insulin, a blood sugar regulator, and also by stimulating transformation of fatty acids to glucose in the liver (by glucagon). Cortisol also reduces recruiting of leukocytes to reduce swelling (which would impair movement and ability to escape) in injured body areas.

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Half-life of epinephrine

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2 hours

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Half life of cortisol

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2.0 hours

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1. Hans Selye

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: general adaptation syndrome.following stages: a. alarm stage (initial regulatory challenge) b. resistance stage (short-term regulatory success) c. exhaustion stage (failure to mount a stress response) Under chronic stress the immune system is depressed. Under extreme bouts of acute stress the HPA axis regulation breaks down and even muscle and other tissue proteins may be broken down into glucose.

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2. Walter Cannon:

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coined terms flight or fight response and homeostasis (stress response regulation)

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4. Robert Sapolsky:

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Dominant male baboons have lower resting levels of cortisol than do subordinates. However, some dominant males make poor risk assessment (over react by fighting without quitting etc). These dominant individuals have higher resting cortisol levels than dominant individuals with good personality profiles that does not create continuous surges of cortisol (they tend to react better to stress. These baboons (with good profiles) are usually better at assessing risk and dealing with stressful situations; they tend to deal with aggression better, and tend to make alliances more easily).

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5. Early experience can adjust the stress system: (Michael Meaney)

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e.g. newborn rat pups taken away from the mother repeatedly until weaning (a very stressful event) tend to do better on stress tests as adults, with the surge cortisol returning to resting levels earlier than nonhandled rats.

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E. Epinephrine

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Signal from brain travels directly down the spinal cord (via the sympathetic nervous system), and plays a role in memory of a stressful event by causing a release in epinephrine from the adrenal medulla. It also operates on the liver to cause a surge of glucose, and has a very fast-acting effect and a short half-life (of a few minutes)

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1. Paul Gold:

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Research with rats using passive avoidance of a tunnel where they have been trained to drink. One day a shock is applied while they are drinking. The successfulness of the rat's memory of the event is measured by the latency (time) to re-enter the tunnel. Gold injected rats with epinephrine (subcutaneously) and glucose (directly into the brain), at different intervals after the stressful event. The epinephrine injections caused significant memory enhancement, particularly immediately after the event. The most effective time to inject epinephrine and glucose is one minute after the shock. Injecting small doses of either treatment doesn't produce good memory and injecting large doses causes poor memory. An intermediate amount works the best. Note that females exhibit poor memory (amnesia) during childbirth which would provide benefits for future births with lower resulting stress because females would not anticipate as much severe pain.

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Midbrain Periaquaductal gray (PAG):

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an area of the brain which elevates heart rate (directly) and blood pressure and plays a role in pain reduction during stressful situations. A projection of the hypothalamus carries direct relays into the PAG, which causes the release of beta-endorphins that inhibit pain transmission in the spinal cord.

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HVC

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Controls learning through hearing. This is what crystallizes and then needs to be digested and reformed to learn new songs.

Different # of neurons dependent on exposure of testosterone.

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VMC

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effects respiratory properties in terms of exhalation and the control of the syrinx as well. Give T, or DHT or E2 and get more dendrites, but T is the only one that makes the females sing.