Principles And Applications Of Assessment In Counseling

Front 1

List initial stage assessment skills.

Back 1

1. Assess client problem
2. Conceptualize problem
3. Implement treatment
4. Evaluate eounseling

Front 2

Why formal assessment strategies?

Back 2

1. Meets expectations of professionalism.
2. Identifies problems
3. Accesses diverse information

Front 3

Why formal assessment strategies?

Back 3

4. Assists client decision making
5. Verifies client strengths and limitations

Front 4

Why formal assessment strategies?

Back 4

6. Can influence counselor credibility
7. Provides assessment and accountability.

Front 5

Two major themes of counselor compentency

Back 5

1. Knowledge of test and its limitations
2. Responsible for competent use of the test

Front 6

Competent use of assessment tools involves two major responsibilities. Name them.

Back 6

1. Determining what inferences can be made.
2. Interpreting test results appropriately. p. 12

Front 7

How does the counselor make appropriate use of assessment tools and interventions?

Back 7

1. Evaluate and select tools skillfully
2. Use instruments and interventions wisely.

Front 8

Name six of the basic types of assessment tools. p. 13

Back 8

1. Standardized vs. non/stan
2. Individual vs. group
3. Objective vs. subjective
4. Speed vs. power
5. Verbal vs. nonverbal
6. Cognitive vs. affective

Front 9

Standardized vs. nonstandardized?

Back 9

Fixed instructions for administering and scoring. Content remains constant and developed by professional standards. Appropriate representative sample. Standardized meets criteria.

Front 10

Individual vs. group drawbacks?

Back 10

Concerns administration: convenient and takes less time, but non-verbal behaviors lost.

Front 11

Objective vs. subjective?

Back 11

Concerns scoring: Predetermined methods of scoring, controls bias & inconsistencies vs. professional judgments (explores client issues)

Front 12

Speed vs. power?

Back 12

Concerns difficulty level: power tests vary in difficulty, speed test examines number completed

Front 13

Verbal vs. nonverbal?

Back 13

Concerns influence of language and culture on assessment: nonlanguage, performance tests. Difficult to design non-verbal tests.

Front 14

Cognitive vs. affective?

Back 14

Cognitive assesses cognition: perceiv

Front 15

Define the measurement scales.

Back 15

Nominal: classifies by name based on characteristics of person or object.
Ordinal: ranks individuals or objects against others.
Interval: units are in equal intervals
Ratio: properties of interval with meaningful zero

Front 16

Norm-referenced?

Back 16

How an individual's score compares with scores of others who have taken the same instrument.

Front 17

Criterion-referenced?

Back 17

How an ndividual's score compares with an established standard or criterion. Attention paid to domain being measured

Front 18

Problems with criterion-referenced tests?

Back 18

No universal agreement witrhin the field about which theories are most important. Mastery level difficult to determine.

Front 19

Frequency polygon?

Back 19

Graph that charts scores on the x-axis (horizontal) and the frequencies of scores on the y-axis (vertical).

Front 20

Problem with criterion-referenced instruments?

Back 20

Determining the mastery level is a problem. Levels set high to minimize false positives.

Front 21

Why is the fictional Counseling Aptitude Scale a norm-referenced instrument?

Back 21

Because we are comparing scores of individuals and use statistics to help interpret the scores.

Front 22

Why use a frequency polygon?

Back 22

A graphic representation makes data easier to understand.

Front 23

What happens when the range of numbers is too large to plot each individual score on a frequency polygon?

Back 23

We use interval scores (e.g., 1-50, 51-100, etc.)

Front 24

Name the three measures of central tendency.

Back 24

Mode: most frequent score
Median: middle score
Mean: arithmetic average of scores

Front 25

Why measures of central tendency?

Back 25

They give some indication of how individuals perform on an instrument.

Front 26

With the CAS in mind, how do measures of central tendency assist you in understanding your score?

Back 26

They help you understand where your score falls with regard to other individuals. Variations in scores affect how your score is interpreted.

Front 27

Define range.

Back 27

Range provides a measure of the spread of scores and indicates the variability between the highest and lowest (subtract lowest from highest to figure).

Front 28

Variance and Standard Deviation?

Back 28

Precise measures to indicate how scores vary from the mean.

Front 29

In the area of assessment, SD is primarily used in two ways. Name them.

Back 29

1. SD provides some indication of the variability of scores.
2. SD can provide an indication of whether a score is below the mean, close to the mean, or higher than the mean. P. 30 (under table 2.3)

Front 30

What does the term "normal distribution" have to do with SD?

Back 30

If the scores on an instrument fall into a normal distribution, SD provides even more interpretive information.

Front 31

Tell the difference between positively skewed and negatively skewed distributions.

Back 31

Positively skewed=scores at lower end of range of scores with the mean more positive than the mode or the median.
Negatively skewed=scores at the higher end of distribution where the mean is more negative than the mode or the median.

Front 32

Types of scores?

Back 32

Raw score: simplest
Percentile rank: those who had a score above or below a given raw score.

Front 33

Standard Scores?

Back 33

They address the limitation of unequal units of percentiles. They provide a shorthand method of converting raw scores so there is always a set SD and Mean. They can be used with all types of instruments.

Front 34

Z Score Formula?

Back 34

Score minus mean, divided by the SD of the instrument used. Z=x-M
s
Sample test: m=75, s-5, x=85
z=85-75 divided by 5 = 2.00 (z score) p. 35

Front 35

Describe a normal distribution with regard to its mathmetical properties.

Back 35

Normal curve reflects that the largest number of cases fall within the center range. Numbers decrease gradually in both directions.

Front 36

What percent of cases fall between 1 SD below the mean and 1 SD above the mean on a normal distribution?

Back 36

68%

Front 37

What percent of the cases fall between 2 SD below the mean and 2 SD above the mean?

Back 37

95%

Front 38

What percent fall between 3 SD below the mean and 3 SD above the mean?

Back 38

99.5%

Front 39

Describe a T score.

Back 39

T score has a fixed mean of 50 and a SD of 10. A Z score can be converted to a T score by multiplying the z score by 10 and adding or subtracting that number from 50. Z score is considered the base of the standard score.

Front 40

Describe a stanine score.

Back 40

Another normalized standard score with a mean of 5 and a SD of approx. 2. Stanines range from 1 to 9. Raw scores are converted to stanines. Con: stanines represent a range of scores that are represented by one number. See p. 36-37.

Front 41

Describe other standard scores.

Back 41

Deviation IQ's and CEEB (college entrance examination board). Dev. IQ's (mean 100, SD 15) replaced the ratio method of IQ (MA over CA x 100.

Front 42

Describe age or grade equivalent scales.

Back 42

Two developmental scales widely used in educational settings. Compares raw scores with average raw score of individuals at that same dev. level. See p. 38 for warnings.

Front 43

Why evaluate the norming group when using a norm-referenced instrument?

Back 43

To determine whether or not the norming group is suitable for the clients.

Front 44

What determines the adequacy of a norming group?

Back 44

1. the clients being assessed
2. the purpose for the assessment
3. the way in which information is going to be used.

Front 45

On whom does the determination of an adequate norming group rest?

Back 45

The practitioner using the instrument.

Front 46

From where is a sample drawn?

Back 46

The larger population of the group being assessed.

Front 47

Define simple random sample.

Back 47

Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Front 48

Describe a stratified sample.

Back 48

Often used in area of apprasal. Individuals selected based on demographic characteristics (African-American, etc.).

Front 49

Describe cluster sampling.

Back 49

Involves using existing units rather than selecting individuals (all elementary schools in a state).

Front 50

Define standard error of measurement.

Back 50

A deviation that provides an indication of what an individual's true score would be if he or she took the instrument repeated times.

Front 51

Define standard score.

Back 51

A transformed raw score that has a set SD and Mean.

Front 52

Define Split-half relibility.

Back 52

One of the internal consistency measures of reliability in which the instrument is administered once and then split into two halves. The scores on the two halves are then correlated to provide an estimate of reliability. Spearman-Brown formula ofen used to correct the coefficients to what it would be if the original amt. of items were used.

Front 53

Define Test-retest reliability

Back 53

A reliability coefficient that is obtained by correlating a group's performance on the first administration of an instrument with the same group's performance on the second administration of that same instrument.

Front 54

Define validity coefficient.

Back 54

The correlation between the scores on an instrument and the criterion measure.

Front 55

Define Predictive Validity.

Back 55

A type of criterion-related validity in which there is a delay between the time the instrument is administered and the time the criterion information is gathered.

Front 56

Define projective technique.

Back 56

A type of personality assessment that provides the client with ambiguous stimulus, thus encouraging a nonstructured response (it is assumed that the indiv. will project his or her personality into the response.

Front 57

Define learning disabilities

Back 57

A general term referring to a group of disorders that result in difficulty in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking,, reading, writing, reasoning, and mathmatical abilities.

Front 58

Define item analysis.

Back 58

A set of procedures used to evaluate individual iems on an assessment instrument. The most common item analysis techniques are item difficulty and item discrimination.

Front 59

Define concurrent validity.

Back 59

A type of criterion-related validity in which there is no delay between the time the instrument is administered and the time the criterion information is gathered.

Front 60

Define construct validity.

Back 60

One of the three types of validity that is broader than either content or criterion-related validity. Construct validity is concerned with the extent to which the instrument measures some psychological trait or construct. This type of validation involves the gradual accumulation of evidence.

Front 61

Define criterion-related validity

Back 61

On of the three types of validity in which the focus is the extent to which the instrument confirms (concurrent validity) or predicts (predictive validity) a criterion measure.

Front 62

Define content-related validity

Back 62

One of the three major categories of validity in which the focus is on whether the instrument's content adequately represents the domain being assessed. Evidence of content-related validity is particularly important in achievement tests.

Front 63

Define correlation

Back 63

A statistic that provides an indication of the degree to which two sets of scores are related. A correlation coefficient can range from
-1.00 (negative or inverse) to + 1.00 (positive corr.) Note: .00 = absence of relationship.

Front 64

Define aptitude test

Back 64

A test that provides a prediction about the person's future performance or ability to learn.

Front 65

Define crystallized abilities.

Back 65

A factor theorized to be part of intelligence that includes acquired skills and knowledge. They are thought to be influenced by cultural, social, and educational experiences.

Front 66

Define fluid abilities.

Back 66

A fator theorized to be part of intelligence and related to the ability to respond to and solve entirely new kinds of problems. These abilities are thought to be influenced by genetic factors.

Front 67

Name the three types of cognitive tests.

Back 67

Intelligence, General ability, and Aptitude tests.

Front 68

Define alternate form reliability

Back 68

A reliability coefficient is estimated by examing the relationship between two alternate, or parallel, forms of an instrument. The reliability coefficient indicates the extent to which the two forms are consistent or reliable in measuring that specific content.

Front 69

Define reliability.

Back 69

The degree to which a measure or score is free of unsystematic error. In classical test theory, reliability is the ratio of true variance to observed variance.

Front 70

Define selected-response item format

Back 70

A method of writing an item in which the individual is provided with a choice of answers and needs to select an answer from those provided alternatives.

Front 71

Define variance

Back 71

The average of the squared deviation from the mean. Variance is a measure of variability and its square root is the SD of the set of measurements.

Front 72

True or False: To determine whether or not an instrument measures what it is intened to measure the instrument is validated.

Back 72

False. It is the uses of the instrument that are validated. p. 62. Be sure that your instrument is validated for the specific manner in which you choose to use it.

Front 73

True or False: Reliability is a prerequisite to validity.

Back 73

True: If an instrument has too much unsystematic error, then the instrument cannot measure anything consistently. The reverse also true, however, when an instrument is reliable but not valid.

Front 74

Give an example of the above.

Back 74

An instrument may measure something consistently, but it may not be measureing what it is designed to measure.

Front 75

Name the three categories of gathering validation information.

Back 75

Content-related, Criterion-related, and Construct-related evidence. There are n rigid distinctions among the three. Validity is a untary concept, but assessment is moving away from this traditional approach to validity.

Front 76

Describe content-related validation.

Back 76

Content-related validation evidence concerns the degree to which the evidence indicates that the items, questions, or tasks adequately represent the intended behavior domain.

Front 77

Explain further. p. 64

Back 77

With content-related validity, instrument developers must provide evidence that the domain was systematically analyzed and ensure that the central concepts are covered in the correct proportion.

Front 78

Give an example.

Back 78

Say a test was given on five chapters of a given text, but the questions were all taken from only one of those chapters. A person could argue that there was a problem with the content-related validity of the test.

Front 79

What is this similar to?

Back 79

It's similar to the procedure used for drawing a proportionate sample of the larger population you wish to assess.

Front 80

Describe criterion-related validation evidence.

Back 80

Criterion-related validity is the extent to which an instrument is systematically related to an outcome criterion.

Front 81

Give some examples of these types of "predictive" instruments (predicts certain behaviors).

Back 81

SAT (predicts college performance), Armed Services vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), which predicts performance in training programs and occupations.

Front 82

Name the two types of criterion-related validity.

Back 82

Concurrent (no time lag) validity and Predictive (time lag) validity (difference lies in the period of time between taking the instrument and gathering the criterion information.

Front 83

Give an example of the two.

Back 83

"Bob is depressed," (concurrent), "Bob is likely to be depressed in the future," (predictive validity).

Front 84

Define criterion.

Back 84

The criterion is what the instrument is designed to predict (e.g., job performance, personality).

Front 85

How can we determine that criterrion is reliable and relatively free from unsystematic error?

Back 85

It should predict what it is designed to meaningfully predict. It should be free from bias. It should be immune from criterion contamination (prior knowledge).

Front 86

Describe validity coefficient.

Back 86

The final step to establish criterion-related validity is to corelate the performance on the instrument with the criterion information. The result of that calculation begin a validity coefficient.

Front 87

Define Regression (another commonly used method for determining the criterion-related validity of an instrument).

Back 87

A statistical technique which allows us to analyze the relationships among multiple variables.

Front 88

Explain regression further.

Back 88

Regression is closely related to correlation. It is commonly used to determine the usefulness of a variable or set of variables in predicting another meaningful variable. Ex: does an instrument measure potential behaviors or predict them. Regression is based on the premise that a straight line (regression line), can describe the relationship between scores and the criterion. The line that best fits the points (scores on instrument plotted in relation to scores on criterion)is the regression line. The line of best fit is used to predict performance on the criterion based on scores on the instrument. See fig. 4.2

Front 89

True or False: Just as no instrument can have perfect reliability, no instrument can have perfect criterion-related validity. p. 69.

Back 89

True, As discussed in Chap. 3, we take the lack of perfect reliability into consideration and provide scores in a range using standard error of measurement. The same logic aplies with criterion-related validity (standard error of estimate).

Front 90

Define false negative.

Back 90

In decision theory (p. 70-72), a false negative occurs when the assessment procedure in incorrect in predicting a negative outcome on the criterion.

Front 91

Define false positive.

Back 91

In decision theory (p. 70-72), a false positive occurs when the assessment procedure is incorrect in predicting a negative outcome on the criterion.

Front 92

Explain construct validity, the third historical type of validation evidence.

Back 92

Becase there is considerable debate about the construct of, say self-esteem, developing an instrument is more difficult than developing items that match the construct of depression.

Front 93

Explain further. p. 73

Back 93

The process of establishing validity for these constructs is mroe complex and consists of gradual accumulation of information.

Front 94

True or False: an instrument's construct validity cannot be verified through one study.

Back 94

True: an instrument's construct validity cannot be verified through one study; rather, construct validity evidence is demonstrated by multiple pieces of evidence, indicating that the instrument is measureing the construct or trait of interest.

Front 95

Describe factor analysis, another method used to contribute to the construct validation evidence of an instrument, particularly the internal structure of the instrument.

Back 95

A statistical technique used to analyze the interrelationships of a set or sets of data.

Front 96

Explore reasons for using factor analysis.

Back 96

Exploring patterns among variables, Analyzing clusters of variables (redundancy), Reducing large numbers of variables to smaller number of statistically uncorrelated variables.

Front 97

Describe item analysis.

Back 97

Item analysis focuses on examining and evaluating each item within an assessment.

Front 98

Compare item analysis with validity evidence.

Back 98

Validity evidence concerns the entire instrument; item analysis examines the qualities of each item.

Front 99

Describe item discrimination.

Back 99

Item discrimination provides an indication of the degree to which an item correctly differentiates among the examinees on the behavior domain of interest.

Front 100

Give an example of item discrimination. p. 78

Back 100

Two people are depressed. One reports it and the other one doesn't.

Front 101

Describe item response theory. p. 79

Back 101

a system of analysis that defines the precise items a person answers correctly based on traits or abilities, rather than their age or grade level.