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34 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Concepts
- How one represents the relationship between two things. We organize our world through concepts.
Hypotheses
- Ideas used to test relationships and then to form concepts.
Mental set or set
- The preconceived notion of how to look at a problem. This may help future problem solving.
Schema
- The cognitive structure that includes ideas about events or objects and the attributes that accompany them.
- New events and objects are categorized based on how well they match with existing attributes.
Scripts
- Ideas about the way events typically unfold.
Prototypes
- The REPRESENTATIVE or "usual" type of an event or object. (e.g. A scientist is someone who is good in math and does not write poetry.)
Insight
- having a new perspective on an old problem. The A-ha! experience.
Convergent Thinking
- The type of thinking used to find the one solution to a problem. Math is an example.
- Was first identified by J.P. Guilford.
Divergent Thinking
- Used when more than one possibility eists in a situation. Playing chess or creative thinking are examples.
- In a group, the presence of a dissenter leads to divergent thinking.
Functional fixedness
- The idea that people develop closed minds about the functions of certain objects. From this, they cannot think of creative uses or think divergently. (e.g. A bird cage is only good for housing birds.)
Problem space
- the sum total of possible moves that one might make in order to solve a problem.
Algorithms
- Problem-solving strategies that consider every possible solution and eventualy hit on the correct solution. This may take a great deal of time.
Heuristics
- Problem-solving strategies that use rules of thumb or short-cuts based on what has worked in the past.
- A heuristic cannot guarantee a solution but is faster than an algorithm.
Metacognition
- Refers to the process of thinking about your own thinking
- It might involve knowing what solving strategies to apply and when to apply them, or knowing how to adapt your thinking to new situations.
Mediation
- The intervening mental process that occurs between stimulus and response.
- It reminds us what to do or how to respond based on ideas or past learning.
Computer simulation models
- Designed to solve problems as humans do.
- Allen Newell and Herbert Simon introduced hte first of these (called the LOGIC THEORIST) and then revamped it (the GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVER)
Deductive reasoning
- Leads to a specific conclusion that must follow from the information given.
Inductive reasoning
- Leads to general rules that are inferred from specifics.
Atmosphere effect
- A logical reasoning error.
- When a conclusion is influenced by the way information is phrased.
Semantic effect
- A logical reasoning error.
- Believining in conclusions because of what you know or think to be correct rather than what logically follows from the information given.
Confirmation bias
- A logical reasoning error.
- Remembering and using information that confirms what you already think.
Reaction time
- Also called LATENCY
- Most frequently used to measure cognitive processing.
- Response speed for all types of tasks declines significantly with age.
Elizabeth Loftus and Allen Collins
- Suggested that people have HIERARCHICAL SEMANTIC NETWORKS in their memory that group together related items.
- The more closely related two items are, the more closely they are located in the hierarchy, and the more quickly a subject can link them.
- e.g. subjects can answer true more quickly to the sentence "A canary is a bird" than they can answer "false" to the sentence "A toaster is a bird."
Allan Collins and Ross Quillian
- Assert that people make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies. The further apart the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection.
Associations between pictures vs. associations between words
- It takes longer to make assocations between pictures than between words, probably because pictures must mentally be put into words before associations can be made.
Semantic priming
- In a word-recognition task is the presentation of a related item (such as "test") before the next item (such as "GRE").
- It decreases reaction time because it activates the node of the second item in the semantic hierarchy.
- In contrast it would take longer for subjects to recognize the acronym "GRE" if it were preceded by the word lobster rather than by the word "test".
Stroop effect
- Explains the decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors, such as when the word "yellow" is printed with blue ink.
Bottom-up processing
- Is recognizing an item or pattern from data or details (data driven).
- This is opposed to top-down processing, which is guided by larger concepts.
Automatic processing
- When a task is effortlessly done because the task is subsumed under a higher organization process.
Eye movements and gaze durations
- Indicators of information processing while reading.
Saccades
- Eye movements from one fixation point to another.
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
- Claims that bodily reactions to situations cause emotions.
- First, physiological responses are present in situations (crying, fleeing, trembling); then we feel the meotion that comes with these bodily reactions.
- E.g. we feel scared because we are trembling.
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion (aka. Emergency Theory)
- Asserts that emotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously.
- In emotional situations, our body is cued to react in the brain (emotion) and in the body (biological response).
- We tremble and feel scared in response to danger.
Schachter-Singer's Cognitive Theory of Emotion
- Similar to the James-Lange theory, it assers that emotions are the product of physiological reactions.
- However, they claim that cognitions are the missing link in the chain. A particular bodily state is felt. Since many different situations produce bodily reactions, how we interpret the state is key.
- N.B. - The cognition we attach to a situation determines which emotion we feel in response to physiological arousal.
- E.g. When a situation causes us to tremble, we feel fear or anger depending on the ideas weh ave about what emotion fits the situation.