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134 Cards in this Set
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Herd
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- number of diferent bands (which are made up of several one males units) where food is particularly plentiful
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Mating in a one male unit
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- all mating happens here
- males from other uni-male units don't mate with females form other ones |
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Genetic drift
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- fundamental tendency of any allele to vary randomly in frequency over time due to statistical variation alone
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geneflow
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ransfer of alleles of genes from one population to another
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Population
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group of individuals that share a common gene pool
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Species
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- groups of actually or ptentially interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups
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How New species arise
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- original species--> two populations become isolated from one another--> evolution causes reproductive isolation betweent he two populations--> new species that cannot produce viable offspring with original species occurs
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Phylogeny
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- Pattern of ancestor-descendent realtionships
- on a "tree" - evolutionary hist. of all life on earth -idea of common descent: everyone descended from one life form - closer species are on tree closer are related to one another |
- Pattern of what?
- on a what? -history of what? - main idea it is based on? - closer species are what? |
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Cladistics and Cladistic analysis
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- method of analysis that allows one to understand phylogeny and idea of common decent
- takes individual traits of species to figure out how to distinguish between species and ho they are related and their relatedness to other species |
- definition
- how it is applied/ used |
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Taxonomy
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- named groups or categories species are put in based on their relatedness
- goal: monophyletic--> group organisms share common ancestor including all of ancestor's group members |
def
goal |
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socioecology
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- study of evolution of social behavior in ecological context
- social behavior determined by evolutionary mechanisms (natural selection etc.) |
two definitons
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Primate societies characteristics
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- not random
-cohesive groups based on sex, age and kinship -Intrinsic social rules which limit conflict in social group |
- not what?
-what kind of groups? -what kind of rules? |
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Antropormorphism
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-Atrributing humanlike characteristics to non-humanlike animals
- not based on what one observes |
- def
- not based on what? |
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Zoomorphism
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-Attributing animal characteristics to human behavior
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Fieldwork
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- studying primates within the context of their ecological environment
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Uni-Male groups
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- groups with one dominant adult male who has a mating monopoly with several adult females
- groups includes male, females and offspring |
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Band
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- multiple uni-male groups that traveland forage together
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Herd
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- number of different bands where food particularly plentiful
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Bacehlor groups
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- all males that travel and live together
- usually grow up and become leaders of one male unit - constantly harassa and try to overthrow leaders of one male units |
-who travels with whom?
- what do they become? - what do they do/ |
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Female dominance hierarchies
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- w/in female part of band
- females compete for sexual access to one male -females form coolitions to highten their power and possible sucess at getting with the male -coolitions usually based on kinship -female agression keeps bands together -males usually don't physically fight b/c confrontatios deadly |
-within what part of band
-who competes for what? - what do they form? - what are these formations composed of? (who) -what keeps groups together? -why don't males fight? |
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4 Main groups of Primates
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-prosimians
-Platyrrhines (New world monkeys) -Cercopithecoids (Old World monkeys) -Hominoids |
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Prosimians
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- Primitive Primates b/c retain many ancestral primate traits (catlike nose, whiskers)
-Habitats: various parts Africa, Asia and Madagascar -Some types: Lemurs, Bushbabies, Tarsiers, Laras -Restricted geographic range because like warm wet weather -mostly nocturnal like ancestral primates -abhoreal (tree living) -like ancestral primates mostly use scent for foraging and communication -physically smallest primates |
-what kind of primates are they normal traits
-Geographically where they live? -example types -what kind of habitats do they like? what does that do for them? -mostly daylight or nighttime animals? -what do they live in? -how do they forage and communicate? -size? |
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Platyrrhines
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- new world monkeys
-only central and south american -mostly diurnal -one genus nocturnal: Aotus --> nocturnality suggests ancestor diurnal -Geographic regions: Tropical -All Abhoreal occasionally come to ground to forage -no direct competition b/c multiple species live togehter using diff resources -prehensile tails: w/underside that has marks like fingerprints -if no prehinsile tails (dependig on locomotion) run on tree tops |
-nickname
-geographic locations -diurnal?nocturnal? -one special genus diff from the rest -live in what type of habitat,tundra, tropical etc. -Live in what? what do they occaisonally do? -what type of resource competition? -specific traits? (tail types) -locomotion? |
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Cercopithecoids
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- old world monkeys
-african and asia -phylogenetically more closely related to apes and chimps than monkeys -largest geographic range of environments can and do live in -most teresstrial primate group |
-nickname
-live where? -who more closely related to phylogenetically? -largest what? -most what primate group? |
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Hominoids
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- Lesser Apes: Gibbons
-Great Apes: Gorillas, bonobo, orangutans, chimps -only live in Tropical Forrests--> very restricted geographic range |
-Two categoris?
-Geographic range? -live what types of environments? |
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In comparisson to other mammals how social are primates?
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-Highly social in comparisson to other mammals
-all primates social-->members of same species interat with each other on regular basis |
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spacial proximity in groups
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-members of same group spend more time in close proximity to each other than members of other groups
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Territory
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-home range
-groups restrict selves to this particular area -can overlap with territories of other groups of diff species -most ranges don't overlap wth groups of same species |
-what is it?
-what do groups do in this area? -how does this relate to territories of groups of other species? -how does this related to territories of grops of the same species? |
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Aggregation (in relation to social groups)
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-groups semi-permanent
-primates don't always end up living in groups they were born in -male or female dispersal at sexual maturity -members of same group spend majority of lives in one group |
- how stable are the groups?
- Do primates always live in their natal groups? -what happens at sexual maturity? -Do groups members often change or do they stay the same from birth? |
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Behavioral drit (in relation to social groups)
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-members of same group treat eachother differently than they treat members of a different group
-territoriality: species w/in same group less aggressive towards each oter than individuals of same species of other groups -coordination in behavior of group members (actions and responses) -cooperaton/division of labor--> social structure based on demographics in group-->juveniles act diff than adults |
-how do group members treat eachother and how do they treat members from other groups?
-what behavior do they exhibit in regards to their ranges? -what can correlate in group members? -how do they get anything done? -who acts diff from whom? |
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Social Organization
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-Defined by four main behavioral patterns
-Grouping - Mating -Dispersal -Social structure |
- defined by what four behavioral patterns?
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Grouping patterns
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- multi male/ multi female
- unimale/multi female -dispersed sociality -two-adult -uni-female/multi-male |
-5 types
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Multi-male/Multi-female groups
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-composed of multi-males and females w/dependent offspring
-common among monkeys |
-made up of?
-common among what group? |
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uni male/ multi female
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-"harem groups"
-adult male mates w/all adult females in group -formation of bachelor groups: groups of outside males -age-graded groups: when male offspring reach sexual maturity kicked out and join bachelor groups until they become uni-male groups leaders themselves |
-nickname
-who with who -formation of what other groups? -what happens with sexually mature male offspring? |
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Dispersed sociality
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- "solitary"
-solitary but social - females and dependent offsprig w/homerange -lone males with homeranges that overlap several female's homeranges but don't overlap other male's ranges -more dominant males larger ranges that overlap more female's ranges |
-nickname
-what is it? -what composed of? -what are ranges like? overlap etc. -more dominant the male the more what? |
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Two Adult groups
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-"monogamous" but not really
-adult male + adult female + dependent offspring -"pair bond"--> male and female spend most of lives together -home ranges don't overlap with homeranges of other groups |
-supposedly what?
-composed of whom? -what type of bond? what does the type of bond mean? -home ranges specifics? |
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Uni female/ multi male groups
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-one adult female mates with all the males in the group (there can be other females in the group who just don't mate)
-if other females, dominant female hinders their mating with hormones that prevent subordinate female from mating |
-who with who?
-can there be two females? -what happens if there is a second female reproductive wise? |
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Fisson fusion societies in Chimpanzees
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-variant of multi male/multi female groups
- males and females in larger community with dependent offspring -when foraging split up into smaller temporary groups-->females forage with offspring, males forage with eachother |
-variant of what type of group?
-who in group? -when do they split up and what do they split up into? -for what purposes do they split up? |
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Mating Patterns
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-Monogamy
-Polyandry -Polygamy -Polygyny |
-four types
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Monogamy
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-two adult groups--> one male mates with one female whom he is bonded with (in theory)
- in reality not monogamous b/c sometimes will female or male with mate with a different female or male |
-what is in theory?
-who exhibits this? -what is in reality? |
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Polyandry
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-single female mates with several males
-uni female /multi male groups |
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Polygamy
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-"promiscuous"
-multiple males and females all mating with eachother -multi male/ multi female groups |
-nickname
-who with who? |
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Polygyny
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-one male mates with several females
-seen in orangutangs and uni-male groups |
-who with whom?
-seen in who? (2 examples) |
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Dispersal Patterns
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-propensity for individual to leave natal group so no inbreeding and no genetic problems occur
-Types: - Male dispersal: males leave the natal group, females are philopatric - Female dispersal:females disperse, males philopatric -Both sexes disperse |
-definition
- three types |
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Social Structure
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-how individuals in groups relate to each other and what strategies they use to meet their own goals (survival and reproduction)
-diff. roles in group: individuals behave diff. and hold diff. roles in group - pwr : based on idividual power |
-def.
-what does each individual have in the group? -what decides the role an individual plays in the group? |
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Power in social groups
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-indentifies what social role one plays in one's group
-based on individual pwr -pwr distinguished by:two things -dominance: fighting ability in conflicts in group (gauged fighting ability)-->depends on size and strength of individual-->individual who wins the most fights etc. is most dominant individual -Leverage: possessing resources that others want --> Ex. Females ability to mate, cna choose who they mate with |
-what does it decide?
-based on what? - distinguished by what two things and how are these two things decided/ shown/ |
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Neopotism (in relation to pwr)
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-individuals tend to choose to interact with mostly thier kin
-based on which sex disperses |
-who interacts with whom?
-what does it depend on? |
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individualistic pwr
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-Individuals have pwr to choose who they interact with in the group, who they ally themselves with
-depends on which sex disperses |
-def.
-depends on what? |
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Dominance Hierarchies
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-based on aggressive encounters: most aggressive or most seemingly physically capable individual dominant over others
-formalizes who in charge so time not wasted on bickering for supremacy -not all groups clear dominance hierarchies -mostly involves ritualized confrontation with no actual confrontation b/c actual physical confrontation dangerous |
-based on what?
-formalizes what and why? -not all groups have what? -mostly involves what type of fighting/confrontation? |
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Despotic society
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-assymetry of pwr-->linear line of pwr (alpha, beta)
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Egalitarian society
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-non-linear line of pwr
-more dominant individuals and more subordinate individuals but no clear hierarchy in group |
-what type of pwr?
-more what and more what individuals? |
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Submissive behaviors in societies
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-Formalize knowledge of dominance hierarchies
-teeth baring -dominant individuals take over beta individuals spots -grooming (more time spent on most dominant individuals) |
-what do these do?
-3 examples |
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Matri-lines in Female Philoparty
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- mother and female offspring matri lines of dominance
-ranking of family groups--> female offspring inherit mother's rank in social order -coalition pwr possible b/c is a coalition of pwr with related females against other matri-lines -youngest female born to highest ranking female in family has the highest rank besides the mother |
-who involved?
-ranking of what? Who inherits what? -what type of power is possible? -who has the highest rank besides the matriarch? |
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Benefits of group living
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-Reduced Predation risk
-Access to food -Raising and Protecting offspring -finding mates |
Four main benefits
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Reduced Predation risk in group living
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-Predators less likely to be able to be successful if prey in a group
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Predators less likely to what?
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Who are the Predators of Primates?
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-large carnivorous mammals: lions etc.
-Birds of Prey: Raptors, Eagles, Owls -Smaller carnivorous Mammals |
Three main groupings
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Four reasons why there is a reduced Predation risk in group living:
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-vigilance: more animals,more eyes and ears to see predators or send out warnings
-Mobbing: animals form groups and attack predator--> try to scare it off -Probablity: larger group number means less likely a particular individual will get eaten b/c many to choose from -Knowledge: diff. individuals diff. knowledge of predators and predators' behaviors |
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Access to Food and why in groups there is better access
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- knowledge;collective knowledge of food sources and where they are
- cooperative defense of food areas; groups can defend larger and better resources than an individual can |
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Raising and protecting offspring is better in groups (2 reasons)
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- allo parenting: babies raised/reared by adults other than parents
-reduces reproductive energy costs on females |
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Finding Mates in groups is easier (3 reasons)
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-easier to find potential mates in a group b/c
1) don't have to travel as far to look 2)more choice b/c more individuals in close proximity 3) safer b/c individuals don't have to make loud vocalizations or whatever they do to attract a mate that would attract preadatory attention to them |
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Cost of group living
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- Time budgets and time constraints
-Intra-group competition -Ritualized fighting and dominance hierarchies |
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Individuals are on Time Budgets and sometimes group living hinders this
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-Individuals have to travel, find food, and rest then if have time can engage in social behavior --> Individual energy requirements
-as group size increases individuals must travel farther with group to get what they need in terms of food - |
-food and the individual
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RELATIVE RANGING COST
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-RRC = size / time
-larger group more time and travel to forage for food |
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Intra-group competition
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-limited resources-->potential for competition
-if group size grows and resources stay the same-->increaded competition |
-limted what means?
-bigger group size? |
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Scramble competition
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-first come first serve: no direct competition but in a race to fine food and mates
-deals with reality of competition in a way less costly to the individual |
-what means?
-deals with? |
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Contest competition
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-aggressive interactions/ confrontations over resources
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Agression
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-cost of living in a group
-energetically expensive -hurts everyone-->reduces cohesiveness of group -possibly deadly |
-what doe it have to do with group?
-how is it expensive? -who does it hut and why? -what is it? |
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Cohesion mechanisms:
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behavaiors that evolve in individuals to increase cohesiveness in groups
-ritualized fighting -dominane hierarchies -allainces/coalitions -Policing -Reconciliation |
what are they?
five different kinds? |
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Genotype
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genetic make up/genome of individual can refer also to individual traits of individual
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Phenotype
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physical expression of the individuals genotype as it correlates with the environment
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Developmental plasticity
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how genotypeis specifically expressed in phenotype in response to the environment
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Darwin + Wallace
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-minds behind natural selection
-came up with same idea seperately -Darwin went more into depth |
-three things
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Intrinsic property of individuals reproduction in environ context
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-animals tend to produce more offspring than environ. cna contain
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What about phenotypic variation?
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-variable b/c advantages to individuals to exploiting diff. resources
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differential exploitation of resources
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might allow individuas to be more sucessful at exploiting resources which means they are more likely to survive and reproduce
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Relative Fitness
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-diff repro success
-fitness nothing more than how many kids have and getting you genetics to live on into the next genereation |
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Adaptation
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phenotypes that enhance the reproductive success ofindividuals in a specific environment
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where does phenotypic variation come from?
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-Genetic Mutation
-Genetic Drift (Bottleneck effect) -Geneflow |
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Genetic Mutation
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-insertion mutation: additional amino acid added in gentic sequence-->protein takes on diff. shape then before-->might change phenotype
-most mutations little or no effect on fitness of individual -non-functional mutation: occur in areas of the genome that are non-coding and non-functional -Mutations rare -Functional Mutation: affe coding area of genome-->if beneficial can actually effect group |
-what type of mutation?
-most mutations what? -what type of mutation occurs where? |
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Genetic Drift: (bottle neck effect)
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-during evolution of population all of a sudden population size tiny-->change in frequency of phenotypes-->allows some mutations to become fixed in species even if not adaptations
-sometimes extremely beneficial traits can disappear due to this |
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Geneflow
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-dispersal patterns effect exchange of genes in populations
-dispersal meant to avoid inbreeding -keeps cohesiveness of species so natural selection an dadaptive traits don't make ppulatons of a species ito sepearate species |
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From Mutation-->Adaptation
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-occur in functinal portion of genome
-must have benefit to fitness -large poulation type:if population in bottleneck could risk loss of benericial genotype -geneflow for it to spread throughout species -Not all traits adaptable all the time |
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Altruistic behaviors
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-behaviors that benefit the recipeint at a cost to the actor
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Primates exhibit altruistic behaviors
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- alarm calls
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Are altruistic behaviors ultimately always altruistic?
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-no sometimes something that may seem altruistic actually is not
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Explanations for development of Altruistic behavior:
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-groups more altruistic individuals greater fitness than groups more selfish individuals--> in reference to natural selection doesn't work because more selfish individuals through natural selection would swamp out altruists
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-theory and why doesn't work in reality
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Kin selection
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-natural selection favors behaviors that help kin at the cost of individuals
-inclusive fitness: individual fitness+ relative's fitness-->individuals fitness can be increased by relative's fitness -reduced individual fitness shown in altruism actually aid inclusive fitness |
what does natural selection favor?
-what is inclusive fitness? -what aids in inclusive fitness? |
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Hamiltons rule
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-degree of relatedness
-benefits of helping kin have to outweigh teh costs ot the individual as a proportion of relatedness |
degree of what?
-benefits to whom what? |
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Kin Recognition
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-kin selection based on idea that individuals can recognize kin,a nd almost impossible to distinguish between familiarity and kin recognition
-visual and factoral ques aid in recognition |
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Factoral ques
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-pherenmones can identify individuals
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Reciprocal Altruism
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-cooperation altruistic behavior on behalf of non-kin
-you scratch my back I'll scratch yours |
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Game Theory: Prisnoner's dilemma
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-two individuals in trouble and being quesitoned sperately two potions 1) keep silence, deny it all, 2) rat out partner
-Tit for tat for both good and bad things |
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Minimum Threshhold coooperation
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-cooperation not al or nothing deal there is a threshhold to cooperation
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Biological Market Theory
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-altruistic services (groominc etc.) are commodities:
more highly ranked individuals get a lot of grooming individuals about the same in rank spend similar amount of time in grooming lowly ranked individuals get groomed the least |
-def.
-social hierarchy and how relates to grooming |
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Sexual Dimorphism
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-significant diff. in size of males and females of species despite fact that they respond to the same environmental constraints
-if mates considered resources these traits for competition over mates |
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Competition over mates 3 forms
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-Male competition: contest competition among males
-Female choice: females choose among competitors -Potential for male coercion: b/c bigger and stronger males can cooerce females into mating with them: coercion b/c even though males use physical force females don't physically resist |
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Parental investment theory
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-offspring can be costly
-males and females have different approaches to reproduction--> ultimately female larger investment of spending time on young |
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Female reproductive approach
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-quality over quantity
-she has to use her energy to bear, feed, and rear young and has limited amount of sex cells therefore she has more of a reason to be selective about who she mates with |
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Male reproductive approach
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-quantity over quality
-mate with as many females as possible to produce largest amount of offspring -monopolize females in group for mating better -high variation among male repro sucess with in groups b/c male dominance hierarchies are such that sometimes males don't ever mate |
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Reproductive skew
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-how many offspring sired
-high degree in variants of who mates among males-->can lead to seuxal selection and prevalence of sexually dimorphic traits |
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monopolization potential
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-depends on sexual ratio --> more females more difficult for male to monopolize mating
-each male under strong pressure to monopolize females -effected by: sex ratio, estrous synchrony and breeding seasonality |
-depends on what?
-each male under strong pressure for what? -effected by three things |
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What does sexual selection favor in terms of monopolixation potential?
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-traits that allow males to monopolize females
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Relative Testes size
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-form of scramble competition
-bigger balls more sperm can be produced and therefore more likely to mean your sperm fertilize the egg |
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Levels of sexual dimorphism
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-polyandrous and monogamous groups very little sexual dimorphism--> all males in population have chance to mate-->no male more potential to mate than othe male because only one female
-uni-male multi-female groups highest level sexual dimorphism b/c males compete with eachother over females, high repro skew b/c one male mating with all females -multi-male multi-female: moderate repro skew, indirect sexual competition (testes size) |
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Sesonal breeding
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-even if male has mating monopoly in group in this situation he can only mate with all the females once a year
-hard for him to keep track of all females at once so females can wander off and mate with other males |
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Females tend to favor males who?
(female selection) |
-good genes
-protect them against female competitors -exhibit interest in aiding with offspring -sometimes reinforce male competition b/c good genes that females favor usually expressed by sexually dimorphic phenotypes |
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Food and Females
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-energetic costs of gestation, lactation, and caring for young expensive
-females best at exploiting resources favored by evolution and natural selection in the long run b/c focus me on nutrition |
- what is expensive?
-who does natural selection and evolution favor? |
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Females who focus more on resources and good nutrition
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-mature faster so can start having babies sooner
-healthier offspring b/c nutrition of mother correlates with nutrition of offspring -better nutrition shorter intervals between birth of offspring -females who eat better live longer and ultimaely more fit because have potential to produce more offspring |
4 things
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Variants on repro. success within group based upon nutrition
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-higher variants in repro. success if resources limited
-lower variants in repro. success if resources unlimited or large |
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Mating competition
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-in group phenomenon
-competition for mate: males for females and females for food |
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Feeding competition:
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-groups of one species compete with other groups of same species for food
-causes of within group competition over this: 1) food quality (better quality food more nutritious: more protein, more energy) 2) Spatial distribution: dif competition arises depending on spatial distribution of food -more about quality food items because harder to find |
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What are the consequences of the spatial distribution of food on females?
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-changes how females interact
-influences formation of either, egalitarian, nepotistic, despotic or individualitic societies |
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Primate diets
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-focus mainly on fruit
-types: folivores, insectiores, frugivores (they are these depending on what the main components of their diets are) -Fruits give most energy etc.--> but not easy to find so primates suplimetn diet with insects or leaves |
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food patch size variability
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large
small uniorm |
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Patch density
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how densly food pathed distributed in home range
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What effects social structure and the grouping patterns of females?
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-abundancy of food
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dispersal patterns and how they affect female interactions in social context
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-female philopatry --> dominance hierarchies
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types of female philopatry
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-Matrilineal rank "inheritance" : born into position of dominance hierarchy, inherit ran of mother, very stable
-Age related rank; individual females rank due to her age and fitness due to her age |
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Matralineal dominance hierarchies
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-occur: species with female philopatry and clumped variable resources
-high leverage: leverage of both dominant relatives and advantages that come with that -female philopatry |
occurs?
leverage? philopatry? consortships? |
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Consortships
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-females philopatric matralineal societes form bonds with males of low rank when he 1) aid her in confrontations, 2) shows an interest in child care and
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In male dispersal pattern how do males get incorporated into new groups?
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-beat resident male
or -shows good male and females let him in to matrilineal dominance societies with female philopatry |
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Age related rank:
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-occurs old world monkey
-individual females rank due to her age and her fitness due to her age -all females eventually gain and lose thier rank -uniform distribution of food patches -no philopatry b/c food patches only big enought to sustain one female -low leverage: no coalitions -no consortship with low ranking males because females have no relatives usually so need leverage of high ranking male to help her out |
occurs?
leverage? philopatry? consortship with low ranking males? |
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Female dispersal
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-females leave because of lack of repro opportunities in current group
-resources: hyper abundant to group size, no contest competition, egalitarian individualistic -females more subject to male coercion b/c have no relatives to support them -potentially dangerous to females; increased predation, possible lack of food, possible agression from other females in new groups |
-why do females disperse?
-what type of resources and what develops in the society due to the resource distribution? -females are more subject to what and whhy? -possibly dangerous to females b/c ; 3 things |
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What do males tend to risk more on over females and why? What are male resources for survival in comparisson to females?
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-males risk more for mating opportunities because all they need to do is survive and mate, they don't have to worry about raising the offspring
-males resources for survival mostly females while females resource for survival mostly food |
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Male stress causes
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-challenges lower ranking males
-male monopilation potential dependent on dominance -if dominant male: keeping track of his females -group size pressures |
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Male monopolization potential
two ways to do so |
-group size; larger group size and larger estrous synchrony make it harder for male to monopolize b/c harder to keep track of individual females, smaller groups size and no estrous synchrony easier for male to monopolize individual females
-estrous synchrony: females all go into estrous at same time-->depending on if species or group has this male's monopolization goes up or down, estrous synchrony goes down, no estrous synchrony potential goes up |
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What is Asynchrony and what does it promote?
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- asynchrony means lack of correlation in female estrous cycles: no breeding seasonality
-promotes formation of dominance hierarchies among males to get access to females |
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Cooperation among related males
two types |
-male philopatry
-age-graded group (gorillas):father's tolerate sons presence in groups even after they reach sexual maturity |
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Male dispersal with kin or without kin
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- brothers or related kin disperse with each other to join new group
-dominance hierarchies with no rank inheritance b/c males unrelated -coalitions important b/c if no kin then need othe rmales as allies -higher rates of affiliation among males -males don't care if they are related in terms of fighting for rank |
-who disperses with whom?
-what type of dominance hierarchies, and why? -coalitions? -higher rates of what among males? -males don't care if they fight who for rank? |
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Age-Graded
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-toleration of sexually mature son in group
-Sons don't :reproduce, no coalition support, don't have contact with father: try to stay out of his way -father dominant son subordinate -females focus on dominant male no interaction with son of male -son interacs with juveniles and aids with offspring -advantage to son is that he can inherit leadership of group if he stays and maybe weren't enough bachelor males in area to form bachelor group |
-toleration of whom in group?
- sons don't ? 3 things -who's dominant who's subordinate? -who do females focus on? -who does the son interact with? -advantages to son (2) |
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Cooperation among unrelated in case of male dispersal
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-multimale multifemale groups
-unstable coalitions -low between group competition over females because might be going against own kin -high intragroup competition over females |
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when unrelated males cooperate what hierarchies develop?
what are they based on? |
-dominace hierarchies based on age (in relatino to size and fighting ability), tenure in group, support (longer in group more support to be had in group)
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when unrelated males cooperate who do the coalitions tend to be among? why?
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-mid ranking males b/c higher ranking males already have pwr
and lower ranking males are usually new members to the group who haven't esablished relationships |
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What do unrelated male coalition partners do to retain the coalition?
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-ritualized acts to confirm partnership: grooming, submissive behaviors to each other
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