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105 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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archaeological site
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any place objects, features, ecofacts manufactures or modified by humans found. don’t have to be abandoned. any place that shows human objects.
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The significance of AD 1492 and AD 1859 in the history of archaeological thought
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exploration and discoveries that were non european
how did people get there? how are structures similar to egyptians? didn’t expect to find new continent. columbus discovered the americas opened new windows of thought in european minds. new civilizations they haven’t encountered before. NA descendants of vikings? lost tribes of israelites? egyptians? survivors? people didn’t just live in europe. precipitation of all archaeological interest. 1859- on the origins of species. darwin. beginning of the theory of evolution |
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Degenerationism
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all people created equal. some degraded according to distance of Holy Land
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Hutton and Lyell's contribution
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-uniformitarianism [1784]
-natural forces responsible for shaping the earth are the same forces we can observe today [not by divine intervention] -slow phenomenon not massive -scholars didn’t have to compress really old history within short span of time because earth’s antiquity wasn’t the same as bible’s perception |
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the Three-Age System
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tompsen
stone age bronze age iron age |
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Thomas Jefferson's contribution
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-1784
-undertook well-controlled excavations -recognized and recorded distinct strata -”the first scientific excavation in the history of archaeology” -sir mortimer wheeler -wanted to know how long they took to make: all at once? or over time? -well laid confined strata, independent associated with different burials and materials ->establish that the mounds were not built in a single event but in several different events and separated by large periods of times, fairly small number of people curious but political implications [land use] info was unique bc it was well executed, quality of records [drawings], -excavation done not to collect objects but to gain information |
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Unilinear Evolution
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progression from barbarianism to civilization.
human societies evolve in simple, linear fashion. progress moral and technological. progress kills the nature inside humans. all humans have potential of civilization. those who aren’t european haven’t reached civilization yet. everything progresses toward civilization. not european aren’t civilized but they have potential to be. state of nature not to be in civilized society. but not intrinsically bad thing. *only europe has developed to civilized to society. every other society has the potential. |
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Lewis Henry Morgan
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Linear Evolution- added stages
Societies progress by experience -savagery [hunters and gatherers] -barbarism [simple farming] -civilization [writing and sophisticated arts] |
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Franz Boas
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-historical particularism and diffusionism
1. culture product of own history inventions only occur once and are passed down only in case of need culture is adaptation on environment |
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Culture History
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first half of the 20th century
classification and chronological and spatial ordering of archaeological material ordering it rather than analyzing specific culture. [precipitated processual archaeology] |
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Childe's Functionalism
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culture is function of its environment
similar environments yield similar cultures [traditions] and institutions [religions and governing] 2 kinds of revolutions: neolithic- agricultural revolution urban- social revolution *adoption of culture is revolutionary |
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Neo-Evolutionism
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e service: bands [25-100]-->tribes [100-2,000]-->chiefdoms [3,000-20,000]-->states [social distinctions larger scale centralized political structures based on social inequality ruled by tiny elite].
M. fried- egalitarian-> ranked -> stratified -> state bands keep numbers low. humans attempt to avoid change but are forced to grow. |
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Bands, Tribes, Chiefdoms, States
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growing of population & organization. social inequality.
--bands- associations of families of no more than 25-100 people. close social ties. dominant social organization for most hunter-gatherers from earliest times up to the origins of food production --tribes- clusters or bands that are linked by clans [group of ppl linked by common ancestral ties that serve as connections b/w widely scattered communities] social linkage that gives ppl a sense of common identity with a wider world than their immediate family and relatives --chiefdoms- kin based but more hierarchical, with power concentrated in the hands of kin leaders. higher population densities [between 3000 and 20,000 ppl] clear signs of social ranking. ceremonies and rituals --state-organized societies [civilization] operate on a large scale with centralized political and social organization, class stratification and intense agriculture. complex political structures and many permanent government institutions. social inequality. ruled by tiny elite. |
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Walter Taylor
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advanced conjunctive approach at scathing critique of culture history’s golden method.
“anthropology can’t concentrate on material and ask wrong questions. should concentrate on culture.” -culture not material remains -influenced processual archaeology |
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Invention
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creation and transformation of a new idea into a surviving artifact
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diffusion
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processes by which new ideas or culture traits spread from one society to another. [through space or time]
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migration
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movement of people based on deliberate decision to enter new areas and leave old ones.
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Processual Archaeology
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“new” early 60s/ lewis binford.
-goal should be to formulate universal laws of social behaviour and culture change. -immediate need is not more data, but better methods [recovery methods and analytical] advocates the application of rigorous scientific methods to understanding the past. *90% related to main concepts of processual archaeology -society and culture are too complex to be distilled down to universal laws -deductive reasoning as opposed to inductive reasoning -deductive- have hypothesis then dig for proof and find info to support it -inductive- dig, get info, make broad generalizations |
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Induction
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dig, get info, make broad generalizations
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Deduction
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have hypothesis then dig for proof and find info to support it
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Middle-Range Research
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ethnoarchaeology, ethnographic analogy, experimental archaeology, taphonomy [site-formation processes].
-state what archaeological expectations are for any given situation -take high level theories that can’t be proven break them up into middle-range theories and see if you can prove them |
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ethnoarchaeology
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study of living populations to understand past. more material traces.
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ethnographic analogy-
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study of ethnographic record to understand ethnoarchaeology
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experimental
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ake objects and play with them. replicate materials of the past to figure out how you use it
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taphonomy
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site formation process. saying stages archaeological site does go through place, occupation, abandonment, discovery, study
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Post-Processual Archaeology
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series of theories that critique of processual archaeology
-variety of perspectives, not a homogeneous movement -can’t create universal law because there’s way too much to consider. take it case by case. -there may be no such thing as objective truth -little to be said for overarching generalizations -accepts ambiguity and contradiction -if society is adaptive, why are so many behaviours maladaptive? |
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Site-Formation Processes (Taphonomy)
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place ->occupation -> abandonment ->discovery -> study
place [before occupation] *what are the characteristics of site location? -occupation *what happened there? -abandonment *did people leave in a hurry? bring their things? trash everything? -discovery *by an archaeologist or by a bulldozer? -study *what was considered important? what questions were emphasized? n-transforms [naturalistic] c-transforms [cultural] creation and then transformation of archaeological site |
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Archaeological Survey,
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-recording of arch remains over landscape through space and time
-survey of all arch material -geographical recording of archaeological remains over the landscape -encountering and collecting surface materials -identification of spatial and temporal components *sectors, architecture, concentrations |
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archaeological sampling:
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systematic, stratified, random
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systematic
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sampling technique in which the target population is divided into equally sized units; sample units are then selected at predetermined points
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random sampling
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completely random
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stratified sampling
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sampling technique in which the target population is divided into zones; random sample units are then selected as to give each zone a number of units proportional to its area
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Name some methods of non-invasive remote sensing and detection
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*aerial/ satellite photo- takings pictures
*soil resistivity mapping- see different types of soils below earths. see outlines of foundations *ground-penetrating radar- same thing *proton magnetometer- different types of magnetism each stone attracts. some elements more magnetic than others *geographic information systems [gps] G.I.S.- placing on map diff locations creating stratum profiles [gps] |
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Relative Chronology
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superposition. principle of association. no exact dates. just in comparison this is older than that. physically looking comparing objects.
determine date of an object based on stratigraphic |
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Terminus post quem
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the most ancient possible date of a stratum, indicated by an object of known date
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Terminus Ante Quem
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he most recent possible date of a stratum, indicated by a structure of known age
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NISP
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Number of identifiable specimens
-Determined by making a chart illustrating the relative frequency of different animal bones found on a site |
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MNI
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-Calculated by taking the number of examples of a given bone and dividing by the number of bones of that type that occur in an individual skeleton that type that occur in an individual skeleton
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Emic
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approaches to classification
● Emic: attempts to understand “native” or autochthonous categories or worldview. [emulate-imitate] how natives would classify it |
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Etic
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approach to classificationattempt to understand the archaeological record according to analyst's own categories or worldview. [through your own eyes] how archaeologists would classify it
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Characteristics of man-made lithic
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flaking of stones.
-striking platform- strike a rock on the platform to form it. -bulb of percussion- rock percussion will spread so you strike it and the waves will go through and come down. -smooth ventral side- side closest to middle of the rock with be smooth. -cortex or flake scars on dorsal sides- hitit |
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Levallois
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technique of stone mapping developed during paleolithic large blades with large flat flakes and triangular points
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mousterian
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styles of flint tools characteristics associated primarily with neanderthals
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Middle Paleolithic
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-middle stone age
-levallois, mousterian -stone technology: flake tools, prepared cores -200,000-40,000 ya -homo sapiens [africa], neanderthals [europe] |
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Upper Paleolithic developments
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-great variety of highly specialized and stylized tools
-clothing, sewing and textiles -pyrotechnology -cooking meat in fire *ART and Symbolism permitting larger social network -recognize modern thought -cave drawings [chauvet] -story telling |
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Aurignacian technology
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-blade extraction and bone tools [plus antler, ivory, wood]
-extensive retouch |
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Purgatorius
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-90-65 million years ago.
-montana. probably evolved into us. fossil farthest back. -probably evolved into a hominin -founder of our phylogeny -ugly [purgatory] |
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Aegyptopitecus
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earliest hominoid [more primate]
-found in egypt -35-25 mya. |
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Sahelanthropus Tchadensis
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-too-my [hope of life]
-earliest known hominin from chad. -7 mya -humans or apes? -may be related to human phyologeny but not sure |
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Australopithecus
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-genus closely related to homo
-4-2.5 mya -upright -lucy australopithecus afarensis |
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Laetoli
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-site where they discovered footprints of a. aforensis walked upright.
-tanzania. -volcanic ash |
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Homo Habilis
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-2.5-1.6 mya
-east africa -handy person -first of homo genus -larger brain than Australopithecus [500-800 cc] -1/2 brain size of modern human |
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Homo Erectus
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-1.9-1.5 mya
-body shape similar to modern humans -used oldawan and acheulan technology -europe -homo ergaster from africa |
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order of species
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purgatorius [90-65 mya]- aegyptophithecus [35-23 mya]- sahelanthropus tchadersis [7 mya]- ardipithicus ramedis [4.5 mya]- homo habilis [2.5-1.6 mya]- homo erectus/ergaster [1.9-1.5]- homo floresiensis [94,000-13,000]
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Rift Valley
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-rapidly eroding area good material to work with
-volcanically active good for argon dating -earliest traces of tamed fire. h. ergaster |
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Neanderthals – Human relationships (hypotheses)
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-h erectus in europe evolved into h sapiens [africa] and neanderthals [europe]
-interbreed? live together. didn’t spend time together |
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Homo Floresiensis
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-[the hobbit]
-indonesian island of flores -94,000-13,000 years ago -new species, microcephalic individuals, endemic cretins? -existing until the 19th century? **unlikely |
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Carrying Capacity
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-max number of individuals in species that amount of land can hold
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Understand evidence for “central places” or base camps
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-consistent place to return to go back and eat
-food bone remains ->foraging methods. brought big animals back to base camp and ate together next to evidence of settlements |
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Homo Ergaster
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-1.9 mya
-african version of homo erectus -brain larger than homo habilis but small than homo sapien -adapted to hot, arid environments. and then radiated out. |
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Understand the relationship between technology and the development of the mind
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-fluid cognition
-oldowan [homo habilis] simple flakes-->acheulan [homo erectus/ergaster] symmetrical, bifacial, sharper--> meusterian/levallois [neanderthal] triangular points -smarter so you can better adapt to environment |
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Multiregional
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homo sapiens evolved separately on every different
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Out-of-Africa models
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homo sapiens developed in africa and then radiated and expanded to other continents and regions.
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Shanidar Cave
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-iraq
-remains of old neanderthal -burial rituals -cared for old |
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Magdalenian Culture
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-80% of all upper paleolithic art
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Mesolithic
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-middle stone age
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Principles of Radiocarbon dating
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Cosmic radiation creates 14C in the upper atmosphere
-All living things are part of the carbon exchange reservoir -From the moment an organism dies, the 14C in it decays at a rate of 50% every 5,730 years rate of 50% every 5,730 years -based on knowledge living organisms build up their own organic matter by photosynthesis and by using stmospheric carbon dioxied. -percentage of radiocarbon in the organism is equal to that in the atmosphere -after death, carbon 14 atoms disintegrate at known rate. half life of 5730 years -measure amount of c14 left in sampel -oldest reliable radiocarbon dates about 40,000 yo -charcoal, shell, wood, hair -beta-particle decay rate measure w/ proportional counter -standard deviation-200 years -calibrate wtih radiocarbon dated tree rings -assumes that c in atmosphere is constant but actually it varies |
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Principles of Dendrochronology
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dating of tree rings
-Low technology, but most accurate method - Any given period of rings have a pattern of alternating ring width (based on variations of sunshine, rainfall, temperature) - Region-dependent and species-dependent because biota react to local conditions extends to some 8000 years in northern Europe and the US southwest -ancient climate changes |
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Principles of Potassium-Argon dating Like C14, a radiometric technique
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Decay of radioactive isotopes
-Potassium 40 isotope in nature decays into Argon 40 -Used in molten rock, where, as it crystallizes, the Argon diffuses away, setting the “Argon clock” to 0. -Whatever Argon is found trapped in the crystals dates the rock formation -Half-life: 1.3 billion years, so the method is used on old samples (1-2 million y.a.) -[250,000 years ago to the origins of life] measures the decay rate of potassium-40 atoms in volcanic rocks. dating east african hominid fossils |
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Mitochondrial DNA and
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Mitochondrial DNA and paleoanthropology
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paleoanthropology
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comparison of the degree of genetic similarity to construct phylogeny
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Ardipithecus Ramidus
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-1st bipedal hominins
-4.5 mya in ethiopia. -small creature. stood upright, thin-enamelled teeth, skull-apes, close link to chimps, -lived in more wooded terrain |
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Oldowan Technology
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-2.5 mya
-simple flake technology *cores [“choppers”] *flakes *polyhedrons *looking for a sharp cutting edge *sharpen sticks, cut through hide, smash bones for marrow *beginnings of increased meat consumption [increased brain size better quality diet] *early hominins, homo habilis, early homo erectus/ ergaster |
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Acheulean Technology-
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-paleolithic technology
- 1.5 mya to 150,000 ya -handaxes, cleavers, and picks -developed sense of symmetry and imposed form -homo erectus/ ergaster |
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Technomic
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primary function is to cope directly with the physical environment [tool]
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ideotechnic
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ymbolises something to society w/o getting physical [clan symbols and deities] [gang/ idiot]
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sociotechnic
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a thing that means something to society but not physically effective [king’s crown]
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Characteristics of man-made lithic
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laking of stones. striking platform- strike a rock on the platform to form it. bulb of percussion- rock percussion will spread so you strike it and the waves will go through and come down. smooth ventral side- side closest to middle of the rock with be smooth. cortex or flake scars on dorsal sides- hitit
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Levallois
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technique of stone knapping developed during the Paleolithic; produces large blades with broad, flat flakes, and triangular points
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mousterian
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style of flint tools associated primarily with Homo neanderthalensis during the middle Paleolithic
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middle paleolithic
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archaeological period extending from 200,000 to 40,000 years ago; characterized by flake tools, levallois reduction, mousterian style, and the use of blades
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Upper Palaeolithic development
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blades and composite tools. Upper Paleolithic Symbolic Explosion and modern behaviour “packages”
*great variety of highly specialized and stylized tools *nets, snares and projectiles “intensification” *clothing, sewing and textiles *pyrotechnology -use of fire was most likely very early. -cooking meat in fire -modify raw materials [stick] *ART and Symbolism permitting larger social network -recognize modern thought -cave drawings [chauvet] -story telling -language around before drawing -conceptualize world -sharing it with people around you -art: stylized way of representing your world |
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Aurignacian technology
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-blade extraction and bone tools [plus antler, ivory, wood]
-extensive retouch |
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pleistocene
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period 1.6 million years ago to 12,000 years ago; most phylogenetic development occurred (modern humans); characterized by climatic change
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holocene
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period 12,000 years ago to present; start of civilization
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Purgatorius
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90-65 million years ago. montana. probably evolved into us. fossil farthest back. probably evolved into a hominin
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Aegyptopitecus
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1st hominoid found in egypt. earliest hominoids. 35-25 mya. primates now live in trees
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Sahelanthropus Tchadensis
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skull from back looks like chimp, from front and teeth hominin of about 1.75 mya. upright walker, hominin or ape?? earliest known hominin from chad.
7 mya may be related to human phylogeny but not sure |
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Australopithecus
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genus closely related to the genus Homo dated 4.0 to 2.5 million years ago; most specimens from east and south Africa; footprints from Laetoli, Tanzania show upright motion; an example includes Lucy, an Australopithecus afarensis
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Laetoli
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place where footprints of Australopithecus were found, demonstrating upright motion
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Homo habilis
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first primate with large brain (half the size of modern humans) dated 2.5 to 1.6 million years ago; found in east Africa and used tools
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Homo erectus
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fossil dated 1.9 to 1.5 million years ago; characterized by a body shape similar to humans; used both Oldowan and Acheulean tools
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rift valley
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rapidly eroding area filled with sediments (good for preservation); tectonically and volcanically active (good for dating)
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Neanderthals – Human relationships (hypotheses)
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h erectus in europe evolved into h sapiens and neanderthals.
interbreed? live together. nea produced mousterian technology extent from 35-28,000 neadnerdalls europe sapiens in africa |
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Homo Floresiensis
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-[the hobbit]
-indonesian island of flores -contexts dated to 94,000-13,000 years ago -new species, microcephalic individuals, endemic cretins? -existing until the 19th century? **unlikely |
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Carrying Capacity -
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-max number of individuals in species that amount of land can hold
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Understand evidence for “central places” or base camps
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consistent place to return to
go back and eat -bones of large animal remains found by evidence of settlement |
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Homo Ergaster
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earliest hominin from lake turkana, kenya
1.9 mya african version of homo erectus brain larger than homo habilis but small than homo sapien adapted to hot, arid environments. and then radiated ou |
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multi-regional model
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theory that Homo sapiens developed in all continents and evolved separately
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out-of-africa model
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theory that Homo sapiens developed in Africa then radiated into other continents
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Shanidar cave
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cave in Iraq that had remains of old Neanderthal; suggested that Neanderthals cared for elderly and preformed burial rituals
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Magdalenian culture
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culture of the upper Paleolithic characterized by advanced and widespread art
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The “second radiocarbon revolution”
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-radiocarbon dating + dendrochronology
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Basics of Foraging theory
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exert least amount of energy to get most gain
choose rabbit that’s closer than moose thats far away |
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Diet Breadth Model
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if prey species in optimal threat it is exploited
lowers search time but raises handling time balance b/w eating a lot of different things and things that are efficient for you if you can’t kill a rhino expand breadth of your diet so rabbits |
