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305 Cards in this Set
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the study of being
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ontology
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examines ideas related to human existence, the nature of being and social reality
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ontology
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for example, "what are the realities you have to deal with being a college student?"
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ontology
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"what do I believe is the nature of the social world I wish to study?"
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ontology
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the fundamental questions in this field are "what can be said to exist?" and "what is existence"
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ontology
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_____ influences the _____ and _____ of a research study.
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ontology; epistemology; methodology
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the study of being; examines ideas related to human existence, the nature of being and social reality. "what is the nature of the social world I wish to study?," "what can be said to exist?," and "what is existence?"
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ontology
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the philosophical study of knowledge and what is valid knowledge
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epistemology
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for example, "what is knowledge and do we get it in the classroom?"
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epistemology
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"what is the type of knowledge I seek to find through my research?"
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epistemology
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the key questions in this field are "what is knowledge, and how is it acquired," or, put another way, "how do I know the world?"
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epistemology
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"how do I know the world?"
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epistemology
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also asks "what is the relationship between the enquirer and the known?'
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epistemology
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the ways in which knowledge is acquired; looks at principles, rules, and procedures of a field/discipline such as public relations
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methodology
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for example, "what are the ethical guidelines in PR?"
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methodology
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"what procedures and strategies will I use based on my answers to ontological and epistemological questions?"
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methodology
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"how do I establish a relationship between myself and the participants?"
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methodology
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the key question of _____ is "how do we know?"
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methodology
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While _____ are the procedures and tools for doing the research, _____ refers to the principles, concepts, and theories that underpin these.
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methods; methodology
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different ways of defining communication, social realities, and how best to research them.
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paradigms
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a set of beliefs, values, techniques, etc. shared by members of a given community
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paradigm
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an entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques, and so on, shared by members of a given community
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paradigm
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a paradigm that is ALWAYS QUANTITATIVE.
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positivism
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states that an objective reality exists, the world is external to the researcher and waiting to be discovered.
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positivism
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looking for patterns and regularities to explain communicative behaviors, findings are generalizable, and the researcher does not let their beliefs/values into research.
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positivism
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an example of this paradigm is survey research or content analysis
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positivism
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an approach to science which is rooted in the ontological belief that an objective reality exists
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positivism
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social reality is believed, like the material world, to exist independently of the perceptions of the individual. In other words, the world is external to the researcher and is something "out there" waiting to be discovered, with the researcher's discovery of that reality directly reflecting it
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positivism
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the aim of research which is grounded in a _____ epistemology is to uncover universal laws and give an objective picture of the world. This is because knowledge is thought to consist of law-like generalities and rules that exist in the social world, just as they do in the natural world. Researchers, therefore, seek universal patterns and regularities in an attempt to explain communicative behavior.
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positivist
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_____ take the laws, rules, and theories that exist and apply them to a number of phenomena, people, and settings. They stipulate that the findings of their research should be generalizable to other settings and situations.
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positivists
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research which is underpinned by _____ thinking demands that researchers be objective in their approach to the phenomena and the people they study, and be value neutral, that is, they don't let their own values intrude into the research
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positivist
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researchers in the positivist tradition often use a _____ approach. This means they start with a general theory or hypothesis, which they then test through searching for empirical evidence that either confirms or falsifies it.
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deductive
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a paradigm which is always qualitative.
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interpretivism
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a paradigm which seeks to establish a distinct, unique approach to the world
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interpretivism
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deals with multiple realities constructed by individuals through interaction, and therefore cannot generalize findings.
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interpretivism
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the goal of _____ is to uncover meanings by which individuals understand their own experiences, behavior, and communication.
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interpretivism
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_____ express an ontological belief in the existence of multiple realities and truths which are open to change because the social world, not having a separate existence from the individual, is socially constructed.
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interpretivists
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it is the manner in which the investigator interprets the social world that determines social reality because investigators and research participants are involved in constructing social reality. _____ is also interested in both the unique and the individual.
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interpretivism
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thinking from an _____ epistemology starts with the individual, the setting and the phenomenon under investigation as a unique entity. The social world is context bound; human “actors” interpret and actively shape their environment, influenced by their social and historical location.
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interpretivist
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reality is constructed by human beings in interaction with each other and the meanings that they give to their own and others’ actions.
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interpretivism
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_____ do not seek to predict behavior or affirm laws that govern communication relationships. Instead they attempt to uncover the meanings by which people understand their own experiences, behaviors, and communication.
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interpretivists
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in effect, _____ researchers prioritize understanding over scientific explanation.
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interpretive
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the notion that research can and should be “objective” is considered illusionary by _____ researchers, who regard themselves as a subjective, researcher tool, “disturbing” not only the research setting through their presence and communication interactions, but also through introducing their own interests, biases and preferences into their construction of the research question itself.
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interpretive
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researchers working within the _____ paradigm focus on meaning, not measurements, and therefore usually choose to employ qualitative methods.
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interpretive
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interpretive researchers generally begin with _____ and take a particularistic approach, going from the particular -- individual instances, incidents, or the unique -- to the general. Hence they do not start with hypotheses or theories but develop these over the course of doing research.
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inductive reasoning
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a paradigm that is usually a mixed methodology design with both qualitative and quantitative.
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critical-interpretive research/critical studies
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the diversity study is an example of _____.
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critical-interpretive research/critical studies
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looks only at power and inequality in society
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critical-interpretive research/critical studies
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in _____, reality is determined by social, political, economic, ethnic, and gender values and inequalities.
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critical-interpretive research/critical studies
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the goal of _____ is to reveal hidden agendas, for example any "ism" (racism, etc.)
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critical-interpretive research/critical studies
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takes account of power and inequalities in society. It assumes that reality is determined by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic and gender values and inequalities. It aims to illuminate these -- together with the implications that professional communication practices have for maintaining or reinforcing power imbalances -- in order to achieve some sort of empowerment and emancipation of those whose voices may not be heard.
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critical-interpretive research/critical studies
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_____ theorists seek to reveal hidden agendas, including those whose interests are served by the research project as well as “the social conditions, ideologies and communicative processes operating behind the back” of research participants. They do this by, for example, posing research questions that challenge common sense or conventional norms such as asking certain elite groups questions that they may be reluctant to have answered but which might be crucial from the perspective of some disadvantaged communities.
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critical
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employs many of the qualitative research methodologies found in the book and notably has influenced critical ethnography and critical discourse analysis.
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critical-interpretive research/critical studies
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methodologically, its central concern is with the interpretation of data complemented by observations and interpretations of the surrounding and historical and societal context.
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critical-interpretive research/critical studies
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because researchers who are undertake primary research from a _____ position are interested in social criticism and transformation, it is not uncommon for their investigations to progress from the micro-level (with data collected on how people interact communicatively within a specific context) to the macro, where researchers seek to identify the broad social and cultural structures which influence communication. To do this convincingly may demand a mixed methods approach and a requirement to draw on insights and theories from across a whole range of disciplines.
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critical
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because researchers who undertake primary research from a critical position are interested in social criticism and transformation, it is not uncommon for investigations to progress from the _____ level to the _____.
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micro; macro
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used if you want your theory to develop as you gather data
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grounded theory research
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it is used when little is known about a topic or behavior (for example, coming out theory). It can be used with observation, interviews, and other forms of research.
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grounded theory research
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the goal of _____ is the development of theory.
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grounded theory research
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it is important to note that the distinctions of _____ are, first, specific cyclical and interactive techniques of data collection and analysis and, second, and most importantly, the development of theory that emerges from the data.
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grounded theory
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a _____ design very much evolves and is not established from the very beginning (even more than other qualitative approaches).
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grounded theory research
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most often used in studies where little is known about the phenomenon to be studied; it is discovery oriented and examines under-theorized topics or areas
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grounded theory research
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in _____ collection and analysis interact with each other, so as soon as you have some incoming data you start the analysis.
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grounded theory research
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The preferred data sources of _____ are observation and interviews, but researchers also employ other types of data collection methods.
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grounded theory research
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used if you are studying a particular culture or sub-culture, for example an organization or a small group of people with shared norms and beliefs. It can be used with observation, interviewing, and collecting and analyzing documents.
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ethnography
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the study of a culture, subculture or group such as the marketing profession, or an organization, or a particular society
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ethnography
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in an _____ investigation, which is usually small scale for professional communication research, it is important to study the social setting with all its cultural diversity.
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ethnographic
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this includes shared norms, behaviors, and the way in which people learn these. The account or report which you eventually produce is called an _____, which is the portraits of a culture.
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ethnography
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in an _____, you obtain your data through observing, interviewing and collecting analyzing documents, both written and visual, including photographs and videos, often from multimedia sources.
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ethnography
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used if you want to bring about change in professional practices, for example a SWOT analysis.
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action research
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_____ is used if you want to bring about change in professional practices, for example a SWOT analysis.
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action research
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aims to bring about change in professional practice and is often carried out by students who are studying part time while also working in public relations or marketing communications.
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action research
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essentially, researchers plan an intervention in their workplace, such as creating a plan for change communication, then they implement and evaluate this.
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action research
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the aim is to develop best practice as well as contribute to new knowledge about professional communication.
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action research
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interested in examining an issue, event, process, or problem within a particular context.
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case study research
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it seeks to holistically explain how multiple aspects, influences, processes, and relationships "fit together."
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case study research
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in _____, each is a "snapshot" that when put together provides a full story.
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case study research
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associated with a location, a set of people (social or professional group), an organization, or a community
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case study research
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is not used as often as it should be in PR and marketing research
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case study research
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associated with an intensive investigation of a specific phenomenon in its natural context. The approach usually incorporates other methodological approaches and theories within its design.
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case study research
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With the exception of some investigations across many sites, much qualitative enquiry is considered to be a form of _____.
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case study research.
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_____ differ from other qualitative approaches because of their specific, in-depth focus on a phenomenon in its naturalistic setting as an object of interest in its own right.
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case studies
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interested in examining an issue, event, process, or problem within a particular context
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case study research
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The distinguishing feature of _____ is its holistic explanation of how multiple aspects, influences, processes, and relationships “fit together” within each.
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case study research
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with case study research, each case may be studied as a brief _____ (i.e. over a short period of days or weeks) or _____ over months or even years. Within its embrace, a case study also encompasses multiple methods (interviews, observations, document analysis, focus groups, and so on).
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snapshot; longitudinally
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case study research involves _____ and _____ examination -- using multiple sources of evidence (which may be qualitative and quantitative) -- of a single phenomenon (such as an issue, a campaign, an event or even an organization) within its social context, which is bounded by _____ and _____.
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intensive; holistic; time; place
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often a _____ is associated with a location, a set of people such as a social or professional group, an organization or a community.
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case study
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the aim of _____ is to increase knowledge about contemporary (and sometimes historical) communication events and processes in their context.
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case study research
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questions about how and why things occur in a particular situation or “What is going on here?” are your primary concern when you opt for _____.
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case study research
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in effect, you are aiming to bring to life the nuances of professional communication by describing a chunk of “reality.”
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case study research
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enables you to collect rich, detailed information across a wide range of dimensions about one particular instance or a small number of instances.
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case study research
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A strength of the _____ is its ability to incorporate a variety of different types of data gathered using multiple data collection methods.
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case study approach
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What are the 10 distinguishing characteristics of case studies?
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(1.) deep, narrow EXPLORATION, (2.) focus on REAL EVENTS in real or past time, or both, (3.) bounded by PLACE AND TIME, (4.) either a SNAPSHOT or a LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF EVENTS with a past and present, (5.) multiple SOURCES OF INFORMATION and multiple viewpoints, (6.) DETAILED and descriptive, (7.) HOLISTIC view, exploring relationships and connections, (8.) focus on the TAKEN-FOR-GRANTED as well as the significant and unusual, (9.) useful for THEORY BUILDING or theory testing, (10.) EXTENDABILITY: the extent to which the case resonates with readers so that they are able to extend their understanding of their own experiences
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What are the 10 distinguishing characteristics of case studies?
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(1.) deep, narrow EXPLORATION, (2.) focus on REAL EVENTS in real or past time, or both, (3.) bounded by PLACE AND TIME, (4.) either a SNAPSHOT or a LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF EVENTS with a past and present, (5.) multiple SOURCES OF INFORMATION and multiple viewpoints, (6.) DETAILED and descriptive, (7.) HOLISTIC view, exploring relationships and connections, (8.) focus on the TAKEN-FOR-GRANTED as well as the significant and unusual, (9.) useful for THEORY BUILDING or theory testing, (10.) EXTENDABILITY: the extent to which the case resonates with readers so that they are able to extend their understanding of their own experiences
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the extent to which the case resonates with readers so that they are able to increase their understanding of their own experiences
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extendability
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_____ is the extent to which the case resonates with readers so that they are able to increase their understanding of their own experiences
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extendability
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the _____ involves small numbers investigated in depth at a single point in time or over time.
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single case study
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for example, investigating 1 department in an organization
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single case study
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offers you the opportunity to undertake a deep (but narrow) exploration of a particular phenomenon. Your interest, therefore, is on small numbers which are investigated in-depth at a single point in time or over a longer period.
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single case study
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in choosing the case itself to select, you make the decision either due to _____ (the case itself is interesting and accessible) or because of _____ (using the case to facilitate your understanding of something else).
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intrinsic interest; instrumental reasons
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when you select a case because the case itself is interesting and accessible
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intrinsic interest
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when you use a case to facilitate your understanding of something else
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instrumental reasons
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you should always provide a rationale for your sampling strategy. The logic for selection is because a case is _____, or because one or more cases are _____ in being able to illustrate practical or theoretical features of value to your study, or provide a site for theory testing.
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intrinsically interesting; instrumentally useful
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within _____, it is not uncommon to select a case for primarily practical reasons
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intrinsic interest
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if you are confident about what you wish to study, you might select a case because it is the most convenient or accessible setting for exploring your research topic.
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intrinsic interest
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when your search for an appropriate case is driven by your determination to find a context which illustrates some practical or theoretical feature or process about which you are concerned, or which provides a site for theory testing
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instrumental reasons
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your aim is to use the case to facilitate your understanding of something else, and therefore your choice is theoretically guided and your rationale is _____.
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instrumental
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guided by an _____ logic, you might select a case because it allows you to focus on problematic situations from a particular theoretical framework. Your aim would be to identify factors that cause problems in managed communication in order to offer practical solutions.
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instrumental
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if you are examining a company, you need to describe the organization, its social boundaries (membership and formal structure), and physical boundaries (specific site/building). If you are examining an event, you need to describe clients, sponsors of the event, and exhibitions.
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place (in case study research)
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there needs to be a clear beginning and end -- what period of time are you examining? Short period of time or longitudinal? Justify your decision.
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time (in case study research)
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Case studies are bounded or fairly self-contained, and therefore when you have selected your case or cases you need to be able to identify, and write about, the relevant boundaries of _____ and _____.
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time; place
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It is important to outline carefully the boundaries of your case in order to show where your research begins and ends. Boundaries include both _____ and _____.
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place; time
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in place for a case study research, you need to define its _____ boundaries (membership and formal structure), and _____ boundaries (specific site/building)
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social; physical
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While the boundaries of place in case study research are practical, they are also _____. There is danger, then, in treating your case like a sealed unit, impervious to the influence of outside factors.
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artificial
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Case studies should have a clear beginning and end. Note the period during which your study takes place. Is your investigation a snapshot of either an event or an issue at one brief moment in time? Or is it perhaps a longitudinal study of a situation that developed over time, where you examine the series of occurrences that have led up to and resulted from a specific incident?
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time (in case study research)
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A _____ approach is more common in case study research because the nature of the case study allows you to pay attention not only to outcomes but also to the process through which things occur. This focus is one of the greatest advantages of a case study.
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longitudinal
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True or false? Generalizations are not possible with case study research.
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false; it is difficult to make generalizations based on 1-2 cases; however, a reader may be able to identify with something you write or find, therefore generalizations are possible.
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Traditionally, social scientists’ preoccupation with generalization as an essential aspect of research has led to some criticism of case studies for their limited _____.
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generalizability
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True or false? Endeavoring to transfer ideas to a broader realm is always the concern of case study researchers.
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false; instead, case researchers may be more interested in focusing only on the arena of the case itself in order to provide a “thick” description of the complex processes and influences within a particular context.
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True or false? on the whole, it is desirable to aim for some generalization of case study findings in order to show their more general relevance.
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true
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_____ is a more accepted rationale for generalizing from qualitative case studies. The idea here is for case studies to be used to uncover patterns and linkages to theory in order to generalize to theoretical propositions or concepts. Theoretical concepts from one setting can then be verified in other sites and situations, using either qualitative or quantitative research.
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theory-based generalization
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In analyzing case studies, you are searching for _____ in the case(s).
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common themes
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True or false? as with all qualitative research, it is important to ensure that your data collection and analysis are closely interwoven throughout the life of your research, that is, collection and analysis should occur iteratively
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true
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However, whichever analytical technique you choose, in case study research the first stage should be to construct a detailed _____ of the case itself, together with its setting. This helps (and eventually your reader) to work out how everything fits together.
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description
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if your research design includes multiple case studies you will be searching each case for _____ or dimensions that straddle across the others. What you are aiming to do is put these into groups or clusters so that you can compare similarities and differences among the cases.
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themes
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In case study research we (can/cannot) throw out negative cases or alternative cases.
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cannot
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Why can we not throw out negative or alternative cases?
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We explore why it is different, which sometimes can give us BETTER data.
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A case study must provide a _____ account -- including the historic nature of the case, observed the phenomenon, highlighted "_____"/alternative explanations, and allowed all voices to be heard.
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comprehensive; negative cases
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What are the three limitations of case study research?
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(1.) BOUNDARIES; hard to decide which cases to INCLUDE and not include (who is involved with the phenomenon under investigation and who is not, or when a case study begins and ends), (2.) ACCESS; getting companies to HAND OVER DOCUMENTS, especially confidential documents is difficult (negotiating access to settings may be problematic; companies are often unwilling to allow researchers entry on the grounds that confidential information may leak into the public arena), (3.) accused of being TOO DESCRIPTIVE and NOT GENERALIZABLE
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What are the three limitations of case study research?
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(1.) BOUNDARIES; hard to decide which cases to INCLUDE and not include (who is involved with the phenomenon under investigation and who is not, or when a case study begins and ends), (2.) ACCESS; getting companies to HAND OVER DOCUMENTS, especially confidential documents is difficult (negotiating access to settings may be problematic; companies are often unwilling to allow researchers entry on the grounds that confidential information may leak into the public arena), (3.) accused of being TOO DESCRIPTIVE and NOT GENERALIZABLE
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limitations of case study research; hard to decide which cases to include and not include (who is involved with the phenomenon under investigation and who is not, or when a case study begins and ends)
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boundaries
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limitations of case study research; getting companies to hand over documents, especially confidential documents is difficult (negotiating access to settings may be problematic; companies are often unwilling to allow researchers entry on the grounds that confidential information may leak into the public arena)
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access
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the process of bringing order to this great variety of data by organizing, structuring, and construing meaning is what researchers call "_____."
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qualitative data analysis
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starting with your raw data, you use analytic procedures to transform them into something meaningful, thereby gaining understanding
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qualitative data analysis
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The _____ stage of research is where you offer your own, creative insights into the meaning of what you have found, and therefore it is primarily in this section that you show the originality of your work.
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analysis and interpretation
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How does qualitative analysis differ from quantitative analysis?
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qualitative analysis differs from quantitative because in most cases it does not take place in one discrete stage after all the data has been collected but starts as soon as you have carried our your first interview (or other method of data collection).
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the _____ nature of qualitative research means that the results of your ongoing analysis inform and interact with your subsequent data collection, allowing you to ask questions or even change your methods depending on what you are finding out.
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adaptable
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The qualitative research process, then, is both _____ and _____. Usually it starts _____. This means that, initially at least, you find patterns, themes, and categories directly from the data -- instead of imposing themes that you had decided upon before commencing your analysis. Later the process of qualitative research becomes _____ because as your research progresses you develop working propositions and ideas which you test out over the next stages of your data collection and analysis.
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inductive; deductive; inductively; deductive
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There is a constant interplay, therefore, between analysis and data collection, which is why qualitative research is often described as _____.
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iterative
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What three things is qualitative data analysis concerned with?
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(1.) data management and organization, (2.) asking questions of the data, (3.) interpretation
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What three things is qualitative data analysis concerned with?
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(1.) data management and organization, (2.) asking questions of the data, (3.) interpretation
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an initial process of carving up the mass of unwieldy data into manageable chunks by coding, memoing, and summarizing them into patterns and configurations (themes, codes, and categories).
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data management and organization
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what is going on? who is saying it? where and when is it happening?
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asking questions of the data
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bringing meaning and insight to the words and acts of participants in the study by generating concepts and theories (or theory-based generalizations) which explain the findings. The key question to ask and answer at this point is: “So what does this finding mean in the light of the literature and my main research questions?” You then communicate the meaning of your findings to others through your written report.
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interpretation
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giving insight and meaning to words
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interpreting data
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giving insight and meaning to words
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interpreting data
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What 3 things are you doing when interpreting data?
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explaining data, comparing your findings with previous, and developing theory
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What are you doing with qualitative data?
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coding data into themes, patterns, and categories
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With _____, you are coding data into themes, patterns, and categories.
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qualitative data
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In qualitative analysis, we are answering what three questions of the data?
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(1.) "WHAT's going on?", (2.) "WHO is saying it?", and (3.) "WHERE/WHEN is it happening?"
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In qualitative analysis, we are answering what three questions of the data?
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(1.) "WHAT's going on?", (2.) "WHO is saying it?", and (3.) "WHERE/WHEN is it happening?"
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_____ is when you record and label fieldnotes systematically.
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organizing the data
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when you record and label fieldnotes systematically
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organizing the data
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It is important to check that you have _____ and _____ everything in a _____ manner. This helps to keep your data intact, complete, organized, and retrievable. This is invaluable when you come to identify categories, piece together patterns, and plan for further data collection.
|
recorded; labeled; systematic
|
|
|
involves deciding what words you will use to label the ideas or themes in your data (after reading data multiple times)
|
coding and categorizing data
|
|
|
coding and categorizing involves the process of _____, writing notes to stimulate thinking and maintain momentum.
|
memoing
|
|
|
What is one limitation of coding and how should you combat this?
|
that some data may not fit into code; to combat this, you should create a system that accounts for this (as data that does not fit can still be beneficial) or set up a system to reject those that do not fit.
|
|
|
coding and categorizing data involves _____; this allows you to narrow and collapse codes into more manageable numbers.
|
looking for patterns
|
|
|
a central and important process in qualitative analysis whereby you make choices about what words you will use to label the ideas or themes you see repeatedly in your data
|
coding
|
|
|
not only does _____ help to organize the overwhelming amount of data, but your decision to create a particular one has a defining effect on what you find in your collated data
|
coding
|
|
|
_____ informs the decisions you make about what is worth saving, how to divide up the material, and how incidents of, say, activities or talk relate to other items or interesting topics that you coded earlier.
|
coding
|
|
|
serves as a label that represents an idea or phenomenon in sections of a text which are similar or have the same meaning
|
code
|
|
|
help you to reduce and simplify the evidence in order to begin to make sense of it
|
codes
|
|
|
True or false? Coding starts immediately.
|
false; coding does not start until you have read through your evidence several times and are so thoroughly immersed in it that you have begun to get an overall idea of the big picture
|
|
|
If you use as labels the specific expressions or words that participants use to suggest an idea, these are called “_____” codes. An alternative type of code is a “_____,” which is when you yourself create a term to describe something that you see in the data but which the people in your study are either not aware of themselves or are not able to express.
|
in vivo; topic code
|
|
|
writing _____ stimulates your thinking and helps you retain your momentum. In addition to fieldnotes, you should write one at the analysis stage in which you record all the labels you use in your emerging coding system, describing the ideas to which the codes and categories refer, and also reflecting on their potential relationships to broader, expanded categories.
|
memos (memoing)
|
|
|
What is another problem with coding?
|
the loss of the context of what is said when you fragment data minutely and in great detail through coding
|
|
|
this stage of coding and categorizing requires you to integrate the different codes into something more stable, compact, and coherent so that you can make sense of them all and focus your subsequent fieldwork back onto your main research question.
|
looking for patterns and working propositions (or emergent hypotheses)
|
|
|
in this stage, you are asking "is your interpretation of the data understandable, meaningful, and credible?"
|
evaluating your interpretations
|
|
|
What three things are you doing when you evaluate your interpretations?
|
(1.) searching for NEGATIVE CASES and alternative explanations -- challenging your themes and patterns, (2.) MEMBER CHECKING -- ask respondents to read your written interpretation and provide feedback, and (3.) be REFLEXIVE
|
|
|
if your conclusions relate directly to the questions that you have asked, your analysis will be _____.
|
meaningful
|
|
|
if your interpretation of the data is understandable to readers and is clearly presented, your analysis is _____.
|
useful
|
|
|
to be _____, you must demonstrate that the perspective you have presented will stand up to rigorous scrutiny, with reference to specific quality criteria, such as reliability and validity or alternatively authenticity and trustworthiness
|
credible
|
|
|
aspects to consider when evaluating your interpretations; this means undertaking a critical analysis, which you do by challenging the themes and patterns that initially seem so obvious, and also by considering instances that do not fit within the patterns.
|
searching for negative cases and alternative explanations
|
|
|
aspects to consider when evaluating your interpretations; to analyze the sense of your data in their context, the aim is to seek confirmation that your interpretation of the data matches the views of your research participants.
|
carrying out a "member check" or respondent validation
|
|
|
aspects to consider when evaluating your interpretations; concerned with explicitly recognizing the role of the research process and acknowledging the researcher’s own experiences and location in this process
|
being reflexive about your interpretation
|
|
|
As a qualitative researcher, you are not an uninvolved bystander but a social being who has impact on the behavior of those around you. Therefore when you come to evaluate the interpretation of the data you should reflect upon the implications of your methods, values, biases, and research choices for the knowledge that you have generated. You should also reflect upon the wider context in which your research -- and your interactions with it -- occurs.
|
be reflexive
|
|
|
What three things are you doing when you evaluate your interpretations?
|
(1.) searching for NEGATIVE CASES and alternative explanations -- challenging your themes and patterns, (2.) MEMBER CHECKING -- ask respondents to read your written interpretation and provide feedback, and (3.) be REFLEXIVE
|
|
|
Nvivo, ATLAS.ti, QSR NUD*IST, and Ethnograph are all examples of
|
computer software programs used only in qualitative research
|
|
|
with these programs, you determine codes and the software program groups like statements together
|
qualitative computer software programs
|
|
|
Software designed to assist the analysis of qualitative is known by the acronym _____.
|
CAQDAS (cactus)
|
|
|
Each offers a variety of tools and products which generally enable functions such as planning and managing your project, memoing, searching for strings words and phrases, coding and recoding into themes and categories, storing and retrieving, marking and commenting on data, and hyperlinking
|
qualitative computer software programs
|
|
|
true or false? the value of computer-assisted data analysis packages has been universally embraced by qualitative researchers.
|
false; some argue that the application of a program leads researchers to be more explicit about their analytical procedures, while others suggest the software focuses the analyst to undertake the process of analysis in a rigid and structured way.
|
|
|
Arguably, the main problem of using computers is the _____ of the researcher from the data.
|
distancing (as it is possible to be less involved with your texts than you would be by repeatedly reading and immersing yourself in the data)
|
|
|
true or false? despite the challenges and controversies regarding the use of computer software for analysis, it has been largely accepted in qualitative public relations and communications research.
|
true
|
|
|
What are the three steps in the process of analyzing and interpreting data?
|
(1.) collecting, (2.) analyzing, (3.) interpreting and explaining data
|
|
|
What are the three steps in the process of analyzing and interpreting data?
|
(1.) collecting, (2.) analyzing, (3.) interpreting and explaining data
|
|
|
When interpreting data, you are doing what three things?
|
(1.) EXPLAINING data so that others can understand what you have discovered, (2.) developing a THEORY OR MODEL of how and why something happened, and (3.) COMPARING your findings with previous research findings
|
|
|
When interpreting data, you are doing what three things?
|
(1.) EXPLAINING data so that others can understand what you have discovered, (2.) developing a THEORY OR MODEL of how and why something happened, and (3.) COMPARING your findings with previous research findings
|
|
|
When writing the qualitative research report, you are writing to _____ and _____.
|
persuade; inform
|
|
|
How is writing the qualitative research report persuasive?
|
you are trying to convince others that you have a complete picture and significant contribution
|
|
|
the research report is a _____ document which aims to convince readers of the quality and importance of your work.
|
persuasive
|
|
|
Doing qualitative research is an _____ or _____ process whereby you write down your ideas, draft out a chapter or section and then return later to redraft your written thoughts.
|
iterative; cyclical
|
|
|
As you write and structure the report, it is worth reminding yourself that the presentation of research is essentially a _____ or _____ activity. You are not just putting down onto paper your evidence and your interpretation; instead, you are seeking to convince readers that you have completed a piece of work of highly quality that makes a significant contribution.
|
rhetorical; persuasive
|
|
|
The _____ tells readers what you did, why you did it, how you did it, what you found out, what it means, and why it’s important.
|
report
|
|
|
True or false? You should wait until the end of the project to begin writing.
|
false
|
|
|
True or false? When writing the final report, you may start out with 1 idea of outline and it may change several times, which is OK.
|
true
|
|
|
When writing the final report, you should always write in _____ person unless told otherwise.
|
first
|
|
|
writing the final report, writing in _____ indicates how involved you were in the research process; bear in mind that many PR reports are written in _____ person
|
first; third
|
|
|
when writing your report, you should keep in mind _____.
|
who will be reading it
|
|
|
a 2-paragraph summary of your article that includes the research question and aim, importance, methods, main findings, and implications
|
abstract
|
|
|
a summary of the research and is written after the study has been completed
|
abstract
|
|
|
it appears on the page following the title, before the table of contents and the full report
|
abstract
|
|
|
it is important because it is on the basis of these that readers commonly make a decision about whether or not to read the full report or article
|
abstract
|
|
|
it is essential to use the _____ as a means of conveying as much information as possible, as interestingly as possible, as concisely as possible
|
abstract
|
|
|
in your _____, tell people what you did, why you did it, how you did it, what you found out and why it’s important.
|
abstract
|
|
|
The abstract should contain a brief overview of what 5 things?
|
(1.) the RESEARCH QUESTION and aim, (2.) why the topic is IMPORTANT and worth studying, (3.) the METHODS you have adopted, (4.) the MAIN FINDINGS of your study, (5.) the IMPLICATIONS in light of other research
|
|
|
may be a list of participants with names changed, a list of organizations, interview guide/protocol, fieldnotes, or all of the above
|
appendices
|
|
|
the _____ may be a list of participants with names changed, a list of organizations, interview guide/protocol, fieldnotes, or all of the above.
|
appendices
|
|
|
any material contained in your _____ is supplementary to your research
|
appendix
|
|
|
For clarification and interest, it is useful to include what 5 things in the appendices?
|
(1.) a LIST OF PARTICIPANTS (with pseudonyms if necessary), with their ages, experience or length of service if relevant, (2.) a LIST OF ORGANIZATIONS (perhaps with pseudonyms) involved in your research, (3.) an INTERVIEW GUIDE, (4.) a SAMPLE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT if your study employed the interview method, (5.) possibly some FIELDNOTES from observations to demonstrate their use
|
|
|
usually _____ are placed at the very end of the report after the bibliography
|
appendices
|
|
|
a distinction between qualitative and quantitative research lies in the potentially _____ structure of the qualitative report
|
flexible
|
|
|
in qualitative research, the _____ are the most important elements of the final write-up, and in consequence these sections contain more words than the others
|
findings and discussion
|
|
|
What are the 11 components of the academic write-up?
|
(1.) title, (2.) abstract, (3.) acknowledgment and dedication, (4.) table of contents, (5.) introduction, (6.) literature review, (7.) methodology, (8.) findings/results and discussion, (9.) conclusion, (10.) references, (11.) appendices
|
|
|
What are the 11 components of the academic write-up?
|
(1.) title, (2.) abstract, (3.) acknowledgment and dedication, (4.) table of contents, (5.) introduction, (6.) literature review, (7.) methodology, (8.) findings/results and discussion, (9.) conclusion, (10.) references, (11.) appendices
|
|
|
What are the 4 main differences between the academic and professional report?
|
(1.) professional reports are often SHORTER IN LENGTH than academic reports, (2.) professional reports have a style of writing that is DETACHED, "PUNCHIER," AND MORE CONDENSED, sentences and paragraphs are shorter, (3.) the presentation INVOLVES MORE BULLET POINTS AND DIAGRAMS than are usually in an academic report, and (4.) there is usually LESS EMPHASIS ON THE METHODOLOGY AND MORE ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS
|
|
|
What are the 4 main differences between the academic and professional report?
|
(1.) professional reports are often SHORTER IN LENGTH than academic reports, (2.) professional reports have a style of writing that is DETACHED, "PUNCHIER," AND MORE CONDENSED, sentences and paragraphs are shorter, (3.) the presentation INVOLVES MORE BULLET POINTS AND DIAGRAMS than are usually in an academic report, and (4.) there is usually LESS EMPHASIS ON THE METHODOLOGY AND MORE ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS
|
|
|
What are the 7 components of the professional report?
|
(1.) title, (2.) executive summary, (3.) table of contents, (4.) introduction and methodology, (5.) findings, (6.) discussion and conclusion, (7.) appendices
|
|
|
What are the 7 components of the professional report?
|
(1.) title, (2.) executive summary, (3.) table of contents, (4.) introduction and methodology, (5.) findings, (6.) discussion and conclusion, (7.) appendices
|
|
|
in the professional report, there is an _____ rather than an abstract.
|
executive summary
|
|
|
usually one or two pages long and provides an overview of the report, with the emphasis on the findings and implications
|
executive summary
|
|
|
the _____ is usually one or two pages long and provides an overview of the report, with the emphasis on the findings and implications
|
executive summary
|
|
|
in the _____, key issues are highlighted through the use of bullet points
|
executive summary
|
|
|
True or false? It is rare to combine qualitative and quantitative methods in a single PR study.
|
false; it is very common to combine qualitative and quantitative methods in a single PR study.
|
|
|
with _____, usually you are collecting and analyzing data at the same time
|
mixed methodology research
|
|
|
when researchers combine qualitative and quantitative approaches in one empirical study, drawing pragmatically on distinct research paradigms
|
mixed methodology research/mixed methods research
|
|
|
_____ is when researchers combine qualitative and quantitative approaches in one empirical study, drawing pragmatically on distinct research paradigms
|
mixed methodology research/mixed methods research
|
|
|
Mixed methods researchers emphasize the importance of completing the research in a _____ and _____ way by using whichever method or research strategy is likely to achieve the desired goals, regardless of their ontological and epistemological base
|
practical; pragmatic
|
|
|
What are the 4 strengths of mixed methodology research?
|
(1.) examine a VARIETY OF ASPECTS AND LEVELS in 1 study (its multidimensional nature), (2.) can answer CONFIRMATORY AND EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS AT THE SAME TIME, verify and generate theory at the time, (3.) provides VERY RICH DATA by establishing what is happening, how it is happening, and why it is happening, (4.) it has the potential to OVERCOME SOME OF THE LIMITATIONS OF MONOMETHOD RESEARCH, for example enabling you to engage with wider contextual or structural aspects
|
|
|
What are the 4 strengths of mixed methodology research?
|
(1.) examine a VARIETY OF ASPECTS AND LEVELS in 1 study (its multidimensional nature), (2.) can answer CONFIRMATORY AND EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS AT THE SAME TIME, verify and generate theory at the time, (3.) provides VERY RICH DATA by establishing what is happening, how it is happening, and why it is happening, (4.) it has the potential to OVERCOME SOME OF THE LIMITATIONS OF MONOMETHOD RESEARCh, for example enabling you to engage with wider contextual or structural aspects
|
|
|
starts with qualitative, then quantitative. Using qualitative to inform quantitative.
|
sequential exploratory design
|
|
|
helpful when you are not sure what to include in a survey
|
sequential exploratory design
|
|
|
starts with qualitative, then quantitative. Using qualitative to inform quantitative. Helpful when you are not sure what to include in a survey.
|
sequential exploratory design
|
|
|
in a _____, the findings of one method elaborate on or expand upon another.
|
sequential exploratory design
|
|
|
usually you start with qualitative strategies in order to explore and illuminate a particular phenomenon or process. You then follow up with quantitative strategies to expand on the findings, to show generalizability or to test either the propositions or the grounded theoretical model you developed in the qualitative phase.
|
sequential exploratory design
|
|
|
quantitative methods, such as a survey, can also illustrate the extent to which the phenomenon you have explored in the first phase occurs more widely within a particular population.
|
sequential exploratory design
|
|
|
collect and analyze quantitative data, then based on these results, create qualitative data to get a more in-depth understanding
|
sequential explanatory design
|
|
|
helpful when you want to gain an overview of what is going on then find out why it is happening.
|
sequential explanatory design
|
|
|
collect and analyze quantitative data, then based on these results, create qualitative data to get a more in-depth understanding. Helpful when you want to gain an overview of what is going on then find out why it is happening
|
sequential explanatory design
|
|
|
a more conventional form of mixed methods research
|
sequential explanatory design
|
|
|
this is where you collect and analyze quantitative data and, based on the results, use a qualitative approach to gain more depth and interpretive possibilities for the study.
|
sequential explanatory design
|
|
|
this type of research is particularly useful when you want to explain some of the relationships uncovered through an analysis of the data derived from a survey or the existence of a surprising pattern that you have discovered in the data, or alternatively if you want to uncover the process the created an unexpected pattern.
|
sequential explanatory design
|
|
|
in this type of design, quantitative strategies have priority, driving and informing the qualitative stage; therefore the results of the study can be generalized.
|
sequential explanatory design
|
|
|
in this and other types of design, separate questions are asked in each stage of the research design so that answers emerge one after the other, or sequentially. Thus findings from the quantitative research form the basis for questions in qualitative research or vice versa.
|
sequential explanatory design
|
|
|
both qualitative and quantitative are collected and analyzed at the same time.
|
concurrent design
|
|
|
using 1 method to confirm the other. “Triangulating” the data.
|
concurrent design
|
|
|
in a _____ design, both qualitative and quantitative are collected and analyzed at the same time. Use 1 method to confirm the other. “Triangulating” the data.
|
concurrent
|
|
|
when _____ procedures are carried out, both qualitative and quantitative data are collected at the same time.
|
concurrent
|
|
|
you integrate and interpret the information you gather through both methods simultaneously, using one distinct research strategy to validate or confirm the other
|
concurrent design
|
|
|
in effect, this form of mixed methods research can be described as triangulation because each strategy is considered equally valid, each being employed to overcome the weaknesses of the other.
|
concurrent design
|
|
|
What are the 9 steps in the mixed methodology process?
|
(1.) reflect on the APPROPRIATENESS of mixed methods, (2.) give a JUSTIFICATION for mixed methods, (3.) select which mixed methods DESIGN/TYPE you want to use, (4.) choose an appropriate SAMPLE for both qualitative and quantitative, (5.) COLLECT DATA based on the design you select, (6.) complete DATA ANALYSIS, (7.) INTERPRET data, (8.) establish VALIDITY and trustworthiness of findings, (9.) report FINDINGS in a formal write-up
|
|
|
What are the 9 steps in the mixed methodology process?
|
(1.) reflect on the APPROPRIATENESS of mixed methods, (2.) give a JUSTIFICATION for mixed methods, (3.) select which mixed methods DESIGN/TYPE you want to use, (4.) choose an appropriate SAMPLE for both qualitative and quantitative, (5.) COLLECT DATA based on the design you select, (6.) complete DATA ANALYSIS, (7.) INTERPRET data, (8.) establish VALIDITY and trustworthiness of findings, (9.) report FINDINGS in a formal write-up
|
|
|
steps in the mixed methodology process; this means considering both qualitative and quantitative aims. Of course, you must be knowledgeable about both qualitative and quantitative strategies in the first place.
|
reflect on the appropriateness of mixed methods
|
|
|
steps in the mixed methodology process; ask yourself whether the methods are to be used as complementary approaches -- sequentially or concurrently -- or merely to confirm validity.
|
give a justification for mixed methods
|
|
|
steps in the mixed methodology process; decide on the priority of qualitative or quantitative procedures or whether they should have equal weight. Note that your research question influences data collection and analysis.
|
select which mixed methods design/type you want to use
|
|
|
steps in the mixed methodology process; probability sampling in quantitative research, and purposeful sampling for the qualitative phase.
|
choose an appropriate sample for both qualitative and quantitative data
|
|
|
steps in the mixed methodology process; the type of collection depends on the design of the study.
|
collect data based on the design you select
|
|
|
steps in the mixed methodology process; according to the separate and specific requirements of both qualitative and quantitative procedures.
|
complete data analysis
|
|
|
steps in the mixed methodology process; this depends on the manner in which you have decided to combine or integrate the different types of data.
|
interpret data
|
|
|
steps in the mixed methodology process; this includes the audit trail, member check (if appropriate), and reflexivity for qualitative findings. For quantitative findings, it includes procedures such as probability sampling and the inclusion of a control group.
|
establish validity and trustworthiness of findings
|
|
|
One way to establish validity in the mixed methodology process is _____.
|
member checking
|
|
|
establishing the validity and trustworthiness of the findings in mixed methodology research includes the _____, _____, and _____ for qualitative findings.
|
audit trail; member check; reflexivity
|
|
|
establishing the validity and trustworthiness of the findings in mixed methodology research for quantitative findings includes procedures such as _____ and the inclusion of a _____.
|
probability sampling; control group
|
|
|
it is _____ to integrate both quantitative and qualitative; methods/theories/philosophical approaches may _____.
|
difficult; clash
|
|
|
True or false? Despite the pragmatism many mixed methods studies suffer from serious flaws, especially when the different methods and approaches have been introduced unreflectively and suffer from theoretical indifference.
|
true
|
|
|
True or false? Many combinations of mixed methods are difficult to integrate or blend.
|
true
|
|
|
What are two criticisms of mixed methodology research?
|
(1.) it is DIFFICULT TO INTEGRATE BOTH -- methods/theories/philosophical approaches may clash, (2.) it is TIME-CONSUMING AND COMPLEX
|
|
|
What are two criticisms of mixed methodology research?
|
(1.) it is DIFFICULT TO INTEGRATE BOTH -- methods/theories/philosophical approaches may clash, (2.) it is TIME-CONSUMING AND COMPLEX
|
|
|
True or false? Because qualitative, quantitative, and even different qualitative approaches diverse in their underlying beliefs, they are not always suited to incorporation within a mixed methods study.
|
true
|
|
|
A disadvantage of mixed methods research is its _____ and _____ nature.
|
complex; time-consuming
|
|
|
Unless there is some rationale for the use of mixed methods research there is the possibility of _____, whereby some data are generated which are highly unlikely to shed light on the topic of interest. This would waste not only your time and energy, but also those of research participants.
|
data redundancy
|
|
|
One criticism levied against mixed methodology research is that often it neglects _____ factors such as class or gender, as well as failing often to engage with _____ factors such as the political and economic.
|
structural; contextual
|
|
|
looking at your individual reality, your individual perspective, the way that you view the world
|
ontology
|
|
|
how do we know that what we know is right and valid? We are talking about understanding the world around us and knowing the things that we know. We gain knowledge from experience and education. Whether something is correct or incorrect.
|
epistemology
|
|
|
looking at specific principles and rules within terms of what is okay and what is not okay. As a society we have rules that people adhere to, so we can look at those guidelines and how those guidelines are followed
|
methodology
|
|
|
the researcher feels the world is external
|
positivism
|
|
|
uses quantitative data to allow us to generalize our findings; "based on this class, it can be inferred that other classes will be similar."
|
positivism
|
|
|
looking at distinct cases -- we do NOT want to generalize. Looking at how people construct reality through interaction.
|
interpretivism
|
|
|
interviews, focus groups, anything that is qualitative when trying to get their unique experiences. Unique cases.
|
interpretivism
|
|
|
looking at how differences and inequalities exist in some type of society or in some aspect of society
|
critical-interpretive research/critical studies
|
|
|
Do I think that in this situation, being a product of a specific environment is going to come into play? Do I think that the influence of teachers, friends, pastors have an influence on research? If so, _____.
|
ontology/interpretivist
|
|
|
How do you know something is fact? How do we establish that something is valid or credible?
|
epistemology
|
|
|
wants to expose research to everyone because they want justice; the only thing that is a kind of action-based research; once you expose whatever the injustice is you are going to spread it more publicly than you would with positivist and interpretivist
|
critical theory
|
|
|
used if we have absolutely no research on what something is. For example, after 9/11 we never had a terrorist attack of that magnitude in the U.S., so lots of theories were developed throughout that process.
|
grounded theory research
|
|
|
you live in a setting for an extended period of time, for example drag culture or rave culture
|
ethnography
|
|
|
looks at the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats to an organization (SWOT); have to be careful when doing this kind of research and has to be anonymous
|
action research
|
|
|
this kind of research identifies the problems, identifies the weaknesses, and gets rid of them
|
action research
|
|
|
especially in PR campaigns, we can look at an entire campaign as a _____ and look at strengths and weaknesses in terms of what worked and what didn't work and apply it to future PR and marketing research
|
case
|
|
|
lets you look at two examples that are similar, such as BP and Exxon Mobil
|
case study research
|
|
|
whatever the event is, you should provide a ton of detail so that people can see, hear, feel, smell exactly what the event was
|
case study research
|
|
|
True or false? In case study research, because we are looking at specific cases and processes they went through based on specific events, it is easy to compare cases and look for similarities and differences.
|
true
|
|
|
investigating the department of communication at NKU or a specific fraternity or sorority is an example of a _____.
|
single case study
|
|
|
specific context, event, place, or time
|
a case
|
|
|
In case study research, because we are looking at so few cases, it is really difficult to _____. We want the reader to be able to find themselves, identify with, or relate to an experience that they have had, so _____ are possible simply because if we describe the case well enough and choose a case that is applicable to lots of different situations, readers can find themselves in it therefore be can make it a little more _____ -- not nearly as much as we can do with survey research, however.
|
generalizability
|
|
|
_____ involves bringing meaning to the data.
|
interpretation
|
|
|
the qualitative computer software program used most often
|
Nvivo
|
|
|
what you complete at the very end of writing the final report
|
abstract
|
|
|
like an abstract, but longer
|
executive summary
|
|
|
may have a visual representation of your findings
|
appendices
|
|
|
doing interviews to get a grocery list of how people are experiencing being a student at NKU, then coming up with a list that we will use to make our survey
|
sequential exploratory design
|
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sending a survey to 400 people to find out what is happening and then doing focus groups to find out why
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sequential explanatory design
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coming up with a survey and interview, then doing both at the same time (have people completing survey at the same time you are doing interviews and focus groups), then analyzing your data and write-ups at the same time
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concurrent design
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used when we kind of know what is going on and have some previous research that establishes it
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concurrent design
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What is the best and easiest way to establish validity in mixed methodology research?
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member checking
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