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253 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
a linear way of understanding the world
positivist vantage point
research from this vantage point usually employes quantitative methods to gather numerical data
positivist vantage point
the aim of quantitative research grounded in _____ is to explain phenomena based on what is already known about public relations and marketing communications.
positivism
What is the aim of quantitative research grounded in positivism?
to explain phenomena based on what is already known about public relations and marketing communications
the vantage point that is relevant if you want to examine questions about cause and effect, or to measure or value something
positivist vantage point
An example of this vantage point involves if children watch a violent cartoon they will act out violently.
positivist vantage point
interested in stimulating emancipation and social change by, for example, challenging orthodox practices and ways of thinking, or uncovering what has been marginalized
critical vantage point
wants to get rid of "ism's" or bring about social change and uses qualitative research
critical vantage point
An example of this vantage point involves wanting to get rid of any type of discrimination.
critical vantage point
the vantage point concerned primarily with reaching understanding about how meaning is constructed and re-constructed through communication relationships
interpretive vantage point
_____ researchers are concerned primarily with reaching understanding about how meaning is constructed and re-constructed through communication relationships in which they study in their _____ setting using _____ research.
interpretive; natural or local; qualitative
researchers with this vantage point deploy qualitative methods to examine communication as experienced by people as something that is typically open, complex and human.
interpretive vantage point
interpretive research is always going to be _____ because it is in-depth information and always going to be studied in a _____ setting.
qualitative; natural
An example of this vantage point is Debbie Taylor's My Children, My Gold, in which the author stayed with seven single mothers each with different backgrounds for six months at a time.
interpretive vantage point
What are four criticisms of qualitative research?
(1.) too SUBJECTIVE, (2.) difficult to REPLICATE, (3.) problems of GENERALIZATION, (4.) lack of TRANSPARENCY
What are four criticisms of qualitative research?
(1.) too SUBJECTIVE, (2.) difficult to REPLICATE, (3.) problems of GENERALIZATION, (4.) lack of TRANSPARENCY
the criticism of qualitative research that deals with the idea that the researcher can't remove themselves from the research.
too subjective
the criticism of qualitative research that deals with qualitative research dealing with individual cases/realities and no two are the same, therefore you should carefully write out the steps taken and questions asked.
difficult to replicate
the criticism of qualitative research that states qualitative research studies are not supposed to be representative of a larger population, yet a common challenge is that they are too restricted in their conclusions.
problems of generalization
the criticism of qualitative research that states you should clearly state how participants were obtained, how you collected and analyzed data, and drew conclusions.
lack of transparency
qualitative thinking is influenced by an _____ worldview.
interpretive
a _____ worldview goes hand in hand with quantitative research methods.
positivist
seeks to distance the researcher from the data in order to be "objective" about how data are collected
quantitative
tends to be LARGE SCALE, with a focus on specific factors which are studied in relation to specific other factors
quantitative
tend to be STRUCTURED FROM THE BEGINNING; procedures and questions are predetermined before primary research begins. This means the theory is tested out through research rather than emerging from the research.
quantitative
one of the key strengths of _____ methods is deep, rich description.
qualitative
The main difference between qualitative and quantitative is that qualitative regards _____, whereas quantitative simply wants to _____ something.
meanings; measure
in qualitative research, you must understand the participants' world as _____ and _____
complex; diverse
in qualitative research, you are _____ of the research/collaborative process (gaining meaning through cooperation)
part
qualitative research is _____ and _____ -- you may start out with an idea but the data may lead you somewhere else as themes emerge (emergent and processual)
creative; flexible
qualitative research takes place in _____ environments (holistic and contextualized)
natural
the goal in qualitative research is to be objective but it is hard to keep your own philosophies/biases out of the research -- so you should own it (the researcher as relevant and _____)
reflexive
in _____ research, steps in research clearly (sometimes painfully) described
quantitative
_____ research is VERY structured and often consists of grocery lists -- a, b, c, or d with no write-in option
quantitative
many believe that _____ research is the only valid research
quantitative
The main focus of qualitative research is _____, whereas the main focus of quantitative research is _____.
meaning; measurement
aim is exploration, understanding, and description of participants' experiences and life world; generation of theory from data
qualitative
aim is to search for causal explanation; testing hypotheses, prediction, control
quantitative
approach is initially broadly focused, process oriented, context-bound, mostly natural settings, getting close to the data
qualitative
approach is narrow focus, outcome oriented, context free, often in laboratory settings
quantitative
sampling is participants, informants, sampling units such as place, time, concepts, purposive and theoretical sampling, flexible sampling that can develop during the research
qualitative
sampling is respondents, participants, randomized sampling, sample frame fixed before the research starts
quantitative
data collection is in-depth non standardized interviews, participant observation/fieldwork, documents, diaries, photographs, videos
qualitative
data collection is questionnaire, standardized interviews, tightly structured observation, documents, experiments, randomized controlled trials
quantitative
analysis is thematic or constant comparative analysis, latent content analysis, ethnographic, exhaustive description narrative analysis, etc.
qualitative
analysis is statistical analysis
quantitative
outcome is a story, ethnography, a theory
qualitative
outcome is measurable and testable results
quantitative
relationships is direct involvement of researcher, research relationship close
qualitative
relationships is limited involvement of researcher with participants, researcher relationship distant
quantitative
quality/rigor is trustworthiness, authenticity, typicality and transferability, validity
qualitative
quality/rigor is internal/external validity, reliability, generalizability
quantitative
_____ focuses on long-term relationships, campaigns, etc.
public relations
_____ is more short-term and focused on 1-shot product sales.
marketing
Both public relations and marketing use some of the same _____, but VERY different _____. Both also look at _____.
tools; strategies; diversity
In practice, public relations practitioners often employ techniques in pursuit of marketing-related goal in order to enhance the willingness of consumers, suppliers, and influencers to think _____ of the organization or brand. Marketers employ strategies from the realm of public relations in order to achieve social, political, and reputational _____.
favorably; objectives
When selecting a topic/initial idea, what should we ask ourselves?
"What am I most interested in?"
When selecting a topic/initial idea, where should we start? (6)
(1.) professional or academic LITERATURE, (2.) your own EXPERIENCES and interests, (3.) discussions with EXPERTS, (4.) the priorities of RESEARCH FUNDERS/available grants, (5.) BRAINSTORM ideas, (6.) talk with your academic SUPERVISOR
When selecting a topic/initial idea, where should we start? (6)
(1.) professional or academic LITERATURE, (2.) your own EXPERIENCES and interests, (3.) discussions with EXPERTS, (4.) the priorities of RESEARCH FUNDERS/available grants, (5.) BRAINSTORM ideas, (6.) talk with your academic SUPERVISOR
_____ and _____ means taking a broad topic and narrowing it down. The topic has to be something that you can get the information for.
researchable; manageable
_____ means your topic advances knowledge in the field with a new idea or new twist.
original
your topic will add to/advance already existing knowledge by discovering new insights or providing evidence of independent, critical thought.
originality
means your topic is achievable in terms of time, resources, skills, responsibilities, etc.
feasible
when you consider time, resources, your research skills and technical abilities, other commitments, and access.
feasibility
What questions are we asking when evaluating the value of our research topic?
(1.) does it help your CAREER, (2.) will your SUPERVISOR be on board?
What questions are we asking when evaluating the value of our research topic?
(1.) does it help your CAREER, (2.) will your SUPERVISOR be on board?
What researchers usually understand by _____ is research that simply aims to add to/advance already existing knowledge (with a new idea or new twist) in order to help further understanding about managed communication.
original
Your study should aim to fulfill the criteria for originality by: (1.) discovering new _____ and (2.) providing evidence of _____, critical thought
insights; independent
What do we gain from reading previous academic literature? (3)
The academic literature points to topics that have (1.) ALREADY been researched, (2.) where there are GAPS in the literature, or (3.) where research needs to be EXTENDED or developed.
What do we gain from reading previous academic literature? (3)
The academic literature points to topics that have (1.) ALREADY been researched, (2.) where there are GAPS in the literature, or (3.) where research needs to be EXTENDED or developed.
In _____ research, researchers go on to develop a set of objectives or _____ which determine in advance a tightly structured line of enquiry.
quantitative; hypotheses
_____ are like a set of predictions about what you expect to find in the collected data; they act, therefore, as a 'recipe' or formula for how the study should be conducted
hypotheses
_____ research is more adaptable, unfolding as it goes along. The principle of _____ requires you to begin without a hypothesis, the idea being that your research focus develops from the data you collect. In general, however, it is worth developing a _____ or research aim from the outset because this guides everything you do
qualitative; grounded theory; central research question
Qualitative researchers usually work _____, trying to describe their participants' experiences or generating _____ from their data. This is in contrast with quantitative data, which _____ tests _____ with the collected data.
inductively; grounded theories; deductively; hypotheses
We usually use _____ to predict what is going to happen, but when we pose _____ we ask open-ended questions since we aren't sure what is going to happen.
hypotheses; research questions
What 2 questions are we asking in qualitative research?
"how?" or "what?"
Qualitative research usually starts with a _____ or _____ question.
"how?" or "what?"
There are 4 types of puzzles (questions) to be solved in the research process. What are they?
(1.) "How or why does X or Y DEVELOP?", (2.) "How does X or Y WORK?", (3.) "What can we learn from COMPARING X and Y?", (4.) "What CAUSES X and what INFLUENCE does X have on Y?"
There are 4 types of puzzles (questions) to be solved in the research process. What are they?
(1.) "How or why does X or Y DEVELOP?", (2.) "How does X or Y WORK?", (3.) "What can we learn from COMPARING X and Y?", (4.) "What CAUSES X and what INFLUENCE does X have on Y?"
What is the reason researchers write a literature review?
The primary purpose of the literature review is to establish a rationale for your study and show why your research question is important.
The _____ forms the foundation of your research project. A primary purpose is to establish a _____ for your study and show why your research question is important.
literature review; rationale
If done well, a literature review will show you what? (7)
(1.) PROVE WHY YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION IS IMPORTANT, (2.) show PREVIOUS RESEARCH on your topic, (3.) prove a new PERSPECTIVE, (4.) connect THEORETICAL CONCEPTS to the profession, (5.) explain why your methods are APPROPRIATE, (6.) develop the LANGUAGE AND TERMINOLOGY linked to the topic, (7.) critique the main METHODOLOGIES and procedures used by other researchers in relation to the topic
If done well, a literature review will show you what? (7)
(1.) PROVE WHY YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION IS IMPORTANT, (2.) show PREVIOUS RESEARCH on your topic, (3.) prove a new PERSPECTIVE, (4.) connect THEORETICAL CONCEPTS to the profession, (5.) explain why your methods are APPROPRIATE, (6.) develop the LANGUAGE AND TERMINOLOGY linked to the topic, (7.) critique the main METHODOLOGIES and procedures used by other researchers in relation to the topic
What should you do when establishing a rationale for your study?
The rationale shows why your research question is important. This means you need to tell the reader about the current state of knowledge in the field, pointing out where existing knowledge is incomplete or inadequate and how your research might either fill the gap or offer an alternative perspective that will improve understanding of your topic.
always the first thing you need to provide as it answers the questions "where are the gaps in knowledge your study will address?" and "how will your company or field benefit from it?"
rationale
answers the questions "where are the gaps in knowledge your study will address?" and "how will your company or field benefit from it?"
rationale
in the fields of public relations and marketing communications, there is an extensive range of academic literature such as e-journals and e-books which are available to view or download from electronic _____ or sites which act as aggregators.
databases
Communication and Mass Media Complete, Business Source Premier, and Communication Abstracts are all examples of
databases
the _____ is a 1-2 paragraph summary of the entire article that will help you ascertain whether the article is relevant to your topic
abstract
a 1-2 paragraph summary of the entire article that will help you ascertain whether the article will be relevant to your topic
abstract
When documenting your sources on notecards, what should be included? (8)
(1.) author(s) last NAME(s) and initials, (2.) DATE of publication, 93.) TITLE OF THE ARTICLE/book/chapter (the edition of the book), (4.) JOURNAL TITLE, volume, issue number and page number (5.) location and name of the book PUBLISHER, (6.) direct QUOTES with exact page numbers, (7.) where you OBTAINED the source (online, work, library, etc.), (8.) brief SUMMARY of the research, highlighting how the research fits with your current study
When documenting your sources on notecards, what should be included? (8)
(1.) author(s) last NAME(s) and initials, (2.) DATE of publication, 93.) TITLE OF THE ARTICLE/book/chapter (the edition of the book), (4.) JOURNAL TITLE, volume, issue number and page number (5.) location and name of the book PUBLISHER, (6.) direct QUOTES with exact page numbers, (7.) where you OBTAINED the source (online, work, library, etc.), (8.) brief SUMMARY of the research, highlighting how the research fits with your current study
What is the purpose of a preliminary research review?
The main purpose of the preliminary research review is to demonstrate the gap in knowledge that you intend to fill.
the first stage of reviewing the literature
preliminary research review
the main purpose of the _____ is to demonstrate the gap in knowledge that you intend to fill
preliminary research review
writing a _____ is like building an argument; my topic has been studied in these areas, but this fourth topic has been completely ignored so I am going to conduct research in that area
preliminary literature review
shows the gap in knowledge your research will fill; presented within your research proposal
preliminary research review
What are the pitfalls researchers make when writing a literature review? (8)
(1.) including EVERYTHING that you have ever read on the topic, (2.) choosing UNSUITABLE SEARCH TERMS when trawling the databases, (3.) failing to LINK THE LITERATURE to your own research, (4.) not IDENTIFYING THE RELEVANT SOURCES, (5.) overly RELYING ON SECONDARY SOURCES, (6.) UNCRITICALLY ACCEPTING other people's research, (7.) not reporting ALTERNATIVE OR CONTRARY OCCURRENCES in the literature, (8.) failing to RECORD EXACT REFERENCES when searching and evaluating the databases
What are the pitfalls researchers make when writing a literature review? (8)
(1.) including EVERYTHING that you have ever read on the topic, (2.) choosing UNSUITABLE SEARCH TERMS when trawling the databases, (3.) failing to LINK THE LITERATURE to your own research, (4.) not IDENTIFYING THE RELEVANT SOURCES, (5.) overly RELYING ON SECONDARY SOURCES, (6.) UNCRITICALLY ACCEPTING other people's research, (7.) not reporting ALTERNATIVE OR CONTRARY OCCURRENCES in the literature, (8.) failing to RECORD EXACT REFERENCES when searching and evaluating the databases
What should be included in a research proposal outline? (9)
(1.) working TITLE, (2.) BACKGROUND and focus, (3.) LITERATURE review, (4.) proposed METHODOLOGY, (5.) QUALITY issues, (6.) ETHICAL issues, (7.) potential PROBLEMS, (8.) RESOURCES, (9.) REFERENCES/appendices
What should be included in a research proposal outline? (9)
(1.) working TITLE, (2.) BACKGROUND and focus, (3.) LITERATURE review, (4.) proposed METHODOLOGY, (5.) QUALITY issues, (6.) ETHICAL issues, (7.) potential PROBLEMS, (8.) RESOURCES, (9.) REFERENCES/appendices
research proposal outline; provide a title (and subtitle) that describes the depth and breadth of the topic and indicates the methodology to be used
working title
research proposal outline; state the focus of the research, the background and context of the research, the scope and the main question(s) to be investigated.
background and focus
research proposal outline; in some cases, it may be appropriate to refer to professional journals in order to highlight a problem or key issue confronting the public relations or marketing communications industry
background and focus
research proposal outline; some academic work on the topic area should be briefly introduced here in order to present a rationale for your study (i.e. is there a particular gap in knowledge that your study will address?).
background and focus
research proposal outline; in this section of the proposal, you should state your research aim or main question
background and focus
in what section of the research proposal outline should you state your research aim or main question?
background and focus
research proposal outline; what is the significance of the project to our knowledge of public relations and marketing communication, i.e. why does the problem or question need to be studied (and why now)?
literature review
research proposal outline; use references to explain how the study relates to, builds on or differs from previous work in managed communication
literature review
research proposal outline; introduce key concepts, theories and research approaches that relate to your research question.
literature review
research proposal outline; indicate the key debates in the field, continuously relating your discussion to the research problem or issue.
literature review
research proposal outline; state how this review of the literature has shaped and contributed to the project’s evolution.
literature review
research proposal outline; if relevant, explain the proposed practical value of the research.
literature review
research proposal outline; in some cases, you will be ready to identify further research questions at this point. These should be clear, researchable, and related to each other.
literature review
research proposal outline; discuss the methodological approach you intend to take and provide a rationale for it. Provide a concise justification for your qualitative research approach, or combination approach, presenting references to support your case.
proposed methodology
research proposal outline; discuss how entry and exit to the field will be accomplished.
proposed methodology
research proposal outline; describe what data will be collected and how, and why you have selected specific methods.
proposed methodology
research proposal outline; indicate how people will be approached for information, how observation visits will be scheduled, the social contexts of observing and interviewing, the use of audio-visual equipment and so on.
proposed methodology
research proposal outline; note your intended sample and rationale.
proposed methodology
research proposal outline; outline how you propose to analyze your data and how your interpretation will relate back to the initial questions posed.
proposed methodology
research proposal outline; identify how you will ensure the quality of your work.
quality issues
research proposal outline; explain how issues of access, informed consent, privacy and other ethical issues will be dealt with.
ethical issues
research proposal outline; indicate any possible difficulties you foresee and how you will endeavor to overcome these.
potential problems
research proposal outline; list the resources you are likely to need, such as equipment and costs.
resources
research proposal outline; list all texts cited in your proposal, follow this with any appendices
references/appendices
Ethical considerations include everything involving what two things?
(1.) the INTRUSIVE NATURE of research, (2.) the WELFARE of your participants
include everything involving the intrusive nature of research and the welfare of your participants
ethical considerations
ethical considerations include everything involving the _____ nature of research and the _____ of your participants.
intrusive; welfare
among _____ are those concerning the intrusive nature of research and the welfare of participants.
ethical considerations
What are ethical considerations?
everything involving (1.) the INTRUSIVE NATURE of research and (2.) the WELFARE of your participants
True or false? Unless you have addressed ethical issues explicitly in your research report, your project will lack professionalism.
true
Where should you outline ethical considerations in your research report?
first in your research proposal and later in the methodology section of your report or dissertation
_____ are those who have the power to give or withhold access.
gatekeepers
Who are gatekeepers?
those who have power to give or withhold access
they control information and grant formal or informal (sometimes verbal) entry to the setting and participants; they may also impose certain conditions for access, such as the requirement to read your report prior to publication
gatekeepers
may hold official positions, such as the corporate communication manager of an organization or the partner of an advertising agency, or they have an unofficial role, such as those persons with the informal power and influence to grant and deny access or information
gatekeepers
True or false? Gatekeepers may be found in any hierarchical level of an organization.
true
most gatekeepers will only grant access if they are assured that there are no risks to _____, their _____, their _____, or their _____.
themselves; organization; customers; clients
gaining _____ to informants, settings and materials for research is one of the first steps in the research process and ethically can be the most problematic in qualitative research
access
When recruiting participants/seeking to gain access, you must ensure what three things? (3)
(1.) participation is VOLUNTARY, (2.) those in the setting are not INCONVENIENCED OR HARMED, (3.) resources are PROTECTED
When recruiting participants/seeking to gain access, you must ensure what three things? (3)
(1.) participation is VOLUNTARY, (2.) those in the setting are not INCONVENIENCED OR HARMED, (3.) resources are PROTECTED
What are the four steps of recruiting participants? (4)
(1) gain ACCESS to the setting, (2.) obtain permission from GATEKEEPERS, (3.) ask participants for PERMISSION to undertake the research and explain how you will protect them, (4.) EXPLAIN EARLY AND CLEARLY the type of project in which they will be involved
What are the four steps of recruiting participants? (4)
(1) gain ACCESS to the setting, (2.) obtain permission from GATEKEEPERS, (3.) ask participants for PERMISSION to undertake the research and explain how you will protect them, (4.) EXPLAIN EARLY AND CLEARLY the type of project in which they will be involved
Why could you be denied access to a research setting? (7)
(1.) ECONOMIC issues, (2.) lack of UNDERSTANDING the value of qualitative research, (3.) do not feel that you "FIT" into their culture, (4.) you will be a DISRUPTION, (5.) worried about CRITICISM, (6.) issues are too SENSITIVE, (7.) participants may be FEARFUL, EMBARRASSED, or too vulnerable
Why could you be denied access to a research setting? (7)
(1.) ECONOMIC issues, (2.) lack of UNDERSTANDING the value of qualitative research, (3.) do not feel that you "FIT" into their culture, (4.) you will be a DISRUPTION, (5.) worried about CRITICISM, (6.) issues are too SENSITIVE, (7.) participants may be FEARFUL, EMBARRASSED, or too vulnerable
reason you may be denied access; the research may take up too much time for the organization involved
economic issues
reason you may be denied access; gatekeepers may not know about qualitative research methods and see them as “unscientific” because surveys and numbers are not involved; according to the culture of many companies, numbers have high validity and research which does not produce statistics is deemed to have little value.
lack of understanding the value of qualitative research
reason you may be denied access; as a researcher, you are seen as unsuitable; depending on the organization, you may be considered an unsuitable researcher because of your gender, youth, appearance, or behavior. However, just because you don’t “fit in” to the culture of an organization does not mean that you are untrustworthy or unable to cope with the study.
do not feel that you "fit" into their culture
reason you may be denied access; it is feared that your presence might disturb the setting; in some settings, relationships and dynamics can be subtly altered by the presence of someone new, such as levels of concentration and trust threatened by an ‘outside’ researcher sitting in with a notebook or an audio recorder.
you will be a disruption
reason you may be denied access; there is a suspicion and fear of potential criticism; research findings may not be favorable to an organization and could damage its public image. In this case, you would need to consider phrasing your critical discussion diplomatically without damaging your own integrity. Remember that even if you do not publish a paper from your research, in general your research report will be publicly accessible. This is one of the biggest reasons for being denied access to a research setting; they are worried that you will find flaws in their system/negative things about what they do.
worried about criticism
reason you may be denied access; you are investigating sensitive issues that may involve commercial confidentiality or might be of a more personal nature where participants, researchers or even society as a whole could be harmed if results are published. This is true especially if there has been a crisis in the organization, even though that is usually when we want to go in and research the most because the further you get away from the event the less likely people are to speak.
issues are too sensitive
reason you may be denied access; discussing any type of big disaster or crisis may cause participants to shut down an interview because it brings back too many memories; may also be afraid to speak out because they do not want their boss to find out.
participants may be fearful, embarrassed, or too vulnerable
the _____ states that participants have the right to refuse participation at any stage.
right of free and informed choice
the right of free and informed choice states what?
that participants have the right to refuse participation at any time
the idea that people whom you ask to participate in a study have the right to give or withhold their cooperation; they can do this at any time, either at the outset or during the course of research
right of free and informed choice
in accepting this principle, you recognize that your need to collect data is always subordinate to a person's right to decide whether to provide it or not
right of free and informed choice
the idea that any participation has to be voluntary which means participants can also get up and leave
right of free and informed choice
means that no emotional, physical, or reputational harm should come to the people you study at any stage of the research
protection from harm
protection from harm means that no _____, _____, or _____ harm should come to the people you study at any stage of the research.
emotional; physical; reputational
no emotional, physical, or reputational harm should come to the people you study either in the course of conducting your research or in its outcome
protection from harm
What does being honest at all times include as a PR practitioner? (8)
(1.) can WITHHOLD SOME INFORMATION as long as it is revealed at a later time, (2.) never FABRICATE information, (3.) never PLAGIARIZE information, (4.) share findings through PUBLIC SOURCES (reports, journal articles, etc.), (5.) give CREDIT to all sources, (6.) ask who will OWN the data, (7.) raw data must be STORED AND PROTECTED, (8.) COVERT research
What does being honest at all times include as a PR practitioner? (8)
(1.) can WITHHOLD SOME INFORMATION as long as it is revealed at a later time, (2.) never FABRICATE information, (3.) never PLAGIARIZE information, (4.) share findings through PUBLIC SOURCES (reports, journal articles, etc.), (5.) give CREDIT to all sources, (6.) ask who will OWN the data, (7.) raw data must be STORED AND PROTECTED, (8.) COVERT research
being honest at all times as a PR practitioner; the report where you present what you have heard and seen in your research carry as much ethical responsibility for authenticity and transparency as did the process of collecting the data. Although you may have taken great care to be ethically concerned in developing and implementing your methodology, you can still end up misusing, miscommunicating and misrepresenting the data or disseminating it poorly and inappropriately so that it results in misperceptions by your readers.
share findings through public sources
being honest at all times as a PR practitioner; if you have chosen to explore visual materials, then you have a responsibility for those whose images have been captured and used in your work. Visual data are much more difficult to anonymize than other types of data. If you cannot find the source, don’t use it.
give credit to all sources
being honest at all times as a PR practitioner; generally, universities retain the right to economically exploit the work of student researchers unless a specific contract has been negotiated with a commercial firm. Funding agencies often impose conditions about the economic exploitation of research. To prevent conflict, it is wise to negotiate questions of ownership before the start of your research. If they own it, you cannot use it or publish it once you have finished it because it is no longer yours and you cannot distribute it in any form.
ask who will own the data
being honest at all times as a PR practitioner; although your findings are in the public domain, your raw data remain protected from disclosure, unless your participants and their organizations have given permission for identification. Protection means ensuring that tapes, notes and transcripts are stored securely, names are not disclosed and participants’ identities are disguised.
raw data must be stored and protected
being honest at all times as a PR practitioner; there is a fine line between the benefits of knowledge acquired through covert means and potential harm, and therefore you need to evaluate the consequences for participants, your profession and yourself if you are intending to undertake research of this nature
covert research
means that research findings may not be favorable to an organization and could damage its public image
suspicion and fear of potential criticism
research findings may not be favorable to an organization and could damage its public image; in this case, you would need to consider phrasing your critical discussion diplomatically without damaging your own integrity
suspicion and fear of potential criticism
True or false? If you do not publish a paper from your research, in general your research report will be publicly accessible.
true
involves changing names, titles, locations, institutions, etc. in your-write-ups
anonymity
_____ involves changing names, titles, locations, institutions, etc. in your write-ups.
anonymity
maintaining _____ means that you do not divulge the identity of research participants to others.
anonymity
this includes not identifying the institution or location in which the research takes place when you are writing up the research report or dissertation
anonymity
if you wish to identify individuals or organizations, it is necessary to obtain _____ first
permission
Anonymity is maintained through what six things? (6)
(1.) the use of PSEUDONYMS, (2.) a change of the NAMES of location and organization,(3.) a change of MINOR DETAIL in the description of participants; (4.) a change of DEMOGRAPHIC factors that are unimportant to the study; (5.) the PROTECTION of data by applying labels with letters or numbers, not names, (6.) secure STORAGE of tapes, lists, scripts, transcripts, etc.
the practice of NOT disclosing ideas or issues participants want to remain undisclosed.
confidentality
True or false? Confidentiality is the same thing as anonymity.
false
True or false? Confidentiality is different from anonymity.
true
means that you do not disclose issues or ideas that participants wish to keep confidential. This refers not only to how you eventually use the data, such as in the writing of your research report, but also to how you conduct yourself in interviews.
confidentiality
the research should be used only for the purpose which you have presented to participants, and you should only disclose that which participating individuals permit you to share publicly.
confidentiality
participants may tell you something to give you context of the event that they do not otherwise want to be disclosed
confidentiality
What is anonymity?
Anonymity involves changing names, titles, locations, institutions, etc. in your write-ups. Maintaining anonymity means that you do not divulge the identity of research participants to others. Anonymity is maintained through (1.) the use of PSEUDONYMS, (2.) a change of the NAMES of locations and organizations, (3.) a change of minor DETAIL in the description of participants, (4.) a change of DEMOGRAPHIC factors that are unimportant to the study, (5.) the PROTECTION of data by applying labels with letters or numbers, not names, (6.) secure STORAGE of tapes, lists, scripts, transcripts, etc.
What is confidentiality?
Confidentiality is the practice of NOT disclosing ideas or issues participants want to remain confidential. This refers not only to how you eventually use the data, such as in the writing of your research report, but also to how you conduct yourself in interviews. The research should be used only for the purpose which you have presented to participants, and you should only disclose that which participating individuals permit you to share publicly. Participants may tell you something to give you the context of the event that they do not otherwise want to be disclosed.
True or false? Confidentiality is different from anonymity.
true
the _____ perspective on quality research states that both qualitative and quantitative research should be judged by the same standards of criteria, generally those of validity and reliability.
traditional
the traditional perspective on quality research states what?
that both qualitative and quantitative research should be judged by the standards of criteria, generally those of validity and reliability.
the traditional perspective on quality research states that both qualitative and quantitative research should be judged by _____, generally those of _____ and _____.
the same standards of criteria; validity; reliability
conventionally, researchers have referred to notions of validity and reliability to demonstrate the quality of their studies. However, these are complex terms, derived from _____ research (and a _____ paradigm).
quantitative; positivist
the _____ perspective on quality research states that researchers should apply different criteria which are appropriate to qualitative research, and use alternative terms such as trustworthiness and authenticity.
alternative
the alternative perspective on quality research states what?
that researchers should apply different criteria which are appropriate to qualitative research, and use alternative terms such as trustworthiness and authenticity.
the alternative perspective on quality research states that researchers should apply different criteria to qualitative research, and use alternative terms such as _____ and _____.
trustworthiness; authenticity
from this perspective, we should not have the same umbrella criteria for both qualitative and quantitative research because the two are so different that there is no way to use the same criteria to see if the studies are valid, reliable, trustworthy, etc.
the alternative perspective
the _____ perspective on quality research states that each research project should be a discrete investigation, judged not against the criteria of others but according to what is most appropriate intrinsically, intuitively or within the research community in which it is situated.
radical
the radical perspective on quality research states what?
that each research project should be a discrete investigation, judged not against the criteria of others but according to what is most appropriate intrinsically, intuitively or within the research community in which it is situated.
asks if the research (1.) makes a contribution, (2.) reflects technical expertise, (3.) includes an element of reflexivity, and (4.) is well presented.
the radical perspective on quality research
the radical perspectives asks if research is what 4 things?
(1.) makes a contribution, (2.) reflects technical expertise, (3.) includes an element of reflexivity, and (4.) is well presented.
within this perspective is the view that each research project is a discrete investigation, and therefore should not be judged against universal benchmarks but instead on its intrinsic merit, relative to the aims and methodology of the study.
the radical perspective on quality research
_____ deals with whether findings are replicable.
reliability
deals with whether findings are replicable
reliability
_____ is very rare in qualitative research because we are looking at unique situations that are difficult to replicate.
reliability
In qualitative research, _____ is the extent to which a research instrument such as a questionnaire, when used more than once, will reproduce the same results or answer.
reliability
the extent to which a research instrument, when used more than once, will reproduce the same results or answer; in order words, it confirms that the findings are replicable
reliability
In qualitative research, the idea of _____ and _____ is rarely used because of the subjective nature of qualitative research. The researcher is the research tool, the research is context specific and therefore the research would be difficult to replicate.
replicability; reliability
One way to overcome the problem of reliability is the generation of an _____, a log or detailed record of the sequential steps taken in the process of research.
audit trail
In qualitative research, the concept of _____ is more salient than _____.
validity; reliability
asks, "is it repeatable?"
reliability
_____ deals with the soundness and rigor of research.
validity
deals with the soundness and rigor of research
validity
_____ asks if the research measures what it is is supposed and that the study accurately assess the phenomenon.
validity
asks if the research measures what it is supposed to and that the study accurately assess the phenomenon
validity
In all research, _____ is about the soundness and rigor of the study.
validity
_____ in quantitative research means that a test measures what it is supposed to measure and that the study accurately assesses the phenomenon that the researcher intends to asses.
validity
asks, "are you measuring what you say you are going to measure?"
validity
_____ is the extent to which the research accurately reflects the social world of those participating in the research.
internal validity
the extent to which the research accurately reflects the social world of those participating in the research.
internal validity
the extent to which the findings and the research account accurately reflect the social world of those participating in the study and also the phenomenon which you are investigating
internal validity
to an extent, you can establish this by showing your findings to participants and asking for their comments (member checking). This enables you to compare your interpretation with the perceptions of the people involved and note whether or not they are compatible. Only the participants themselves can judge this.
internal validity
True or false? Only the participants themselves can judge internal validity.
true
something is deemed to have _____ if you are accurately capturing the experiences of participants, such as single mothers in different countries.
internal validity
_____ is generalizability, which is the idea that even though you may not be able to generalize the findings you can generalize the procedures and the ability to conduct your study in a variety of similar situations.
external validity
external validity is _____, which is the idea that even though you may not be able to generalize the findings you can generalize the procedures and the ability to conduct your study in a variety of similar situations.
generalizability
the idea that even though you may not be able to generalize the findings you can generalize the procedures and the ability to conduct your story in a variety of similar situations; many feel this is the only way to assess the quality of your work.
generalizability
True or false? external validity, or _____, is the most contentious concept linked to validity in qualitative research.
generalizability; true
exists when your findings and conclusions are applicable to other contexts, settings or a larger research population
generalizability
_____ is difficult to achieve in qualitative research, where there is no search for law-like generalities as each study has specificity and uniqueness. This is because the _____ worldview prefers to focus on specific instances or cases that are not necessarily representative of other cases or populations.
generalizability; interpretive
True or false? Context-specific findings, whilst not necessarily generalizability -- because no universal laws or general theories have been established -- may still have some external validity if they are shown to be typical of other settings (generalizability of methods; roles, models or propositions with applicability; non-typicality; typicality; investigating more than one context; theory-based generalization; objectivity-subjectivity)
true
the idea of "from this group, anyone who fits this stereotype is probably going to have a similar experience"
generalizability
for example, when looking at a variety of four-year institutions, chances are similar you would find close to similar results when asking similar questions
generalizability
many feel this is the only way to assess the quality of your work
generalizability/external validity
_____ deals with whether the claim you make about the findings is plausible -- realistic, doable, etc.
plausibility
deals with whether the claim you make and the findings is realistic, doable, etc.
plausibility
True or false? Research that is plausible and credible is sufficient to fulfill the criteria of validity.
false (research that is plausible and credible is insufficient in itself to fulfill the criteria of validity as it needs to meet validity criteria as well)
the idea that people have to believe that what you did was actually possible and that it is realistic to actually duplicate
plausibility
_____ is the concept that any research study must be meaningful and useful for those who study it, read it, and those who are studied.
relevance
the concept that any research study must be meaningful and useful for those who study it, read it, and those who are studied.
relevance
means that any research study must be meaningful and useful for those who undertake it and who read it, indeed for those to whom it is addressed.
relevance
from a traditional or conventional perspective, this criterion has salience for evaluating qualitative research in public relations and marketing communications because it suggests that any study you undertake should provide some sort of solution to problems faced by practitioners in the field (action research)
relevance
the idea that we have to prove that our research is worth something and that someone will get something out of it
relevance
"this is why our research is important, this is who may benefit from it"
relevance
_____ is a strategy for ensuring the quality of your research that involves asking your participants to read your findings and verify that you have depicted them accurately.
member checking
a strategy for ensuring the quality of your research that involves asking your participants to read your findings and verify that you have depicted them accurately
member checking
a _____ or _____ is when you check your understanding of the data with the people you study, by summarizing, repeating or paraphrasing their words and asking about their veracity and interpretation.
member checking; member validation
it provides feedback to participants, enables you to check their reaction to the data and findings, and helps you to gauge their response to your interpretation of the data.
member checking
What are the five specific purposes of member checking? (5)
(1.) to find out whether you are presenting the reality of the participants in a way that is credible to them, (2.) to provide opportunities for them to correct errors which they might have made in their discussions with you, (3.) to assess your understanding and interpretation of the data, (4.) to challenge your ideas, and (5.) to gather further data through participants' responses to your interpretations
Feedback from others ensures the _____ (_____) of your research, helping you avoid misinterpreting or misunderstanding the words or actions of participants.
trustworthiness (validity)
by carrying out a _____, it is more likely that you will present their point of view.
member check
to an extent, this acts to empower your participants because you are giving them a form of control over their words, and thus some control in the study itself
member checking
True or false? Members -- participants -- might also forget what they have said, have changed their minds or be highly critical of your interpretation, so a member check alone is not proof of the trustworthiness of a study.
true
What are three techniques for carrying out a member check? (3)
(1.) present participants with a transcript of their interview or fieldnotes on your observations, (2.) present participants with a summary of their interview and your observations, plus your interpretations of their words and actions, and (3.) present a copy of the final report or substantial sections of it to participants
a _____ is absolutely the best way for you to accurately figure out if you are portraying or getting the snapshot of participants' experiences
member check
after focus groups and content analyses, involves taking your raw data back after changing their names, handing their information back to the person and asking if it accurately captures how they experienced things and if there was anything that got left out
member checking
True or false? In qualitative research we can do member checking with every participant or just 2-3 so that if you accurately depicted the sample the chances are that the rest of them are good.
true