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130 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the function of the nucleus? |
The nucleus contains chromatin, or DNA, the genetic material. In essence, the nucleus is the command center of the cell
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What is the function of the nucleolus?
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The nucleolus is a dark region of chromatin where rRNA is produced and where rRNA joins with proteins to form the subunits of ribosomes
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What is the functions of ribosomes?
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Ribosomes lack a membrane and are the site of protein synthesis. They are found in the ER.
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What is the function of smooth ER?
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The smooth ER lacks ribosomes and has more gland cells which make lipids, such as phospholipids and steroids. It also forms vesicles that transport molecules to other parts of the cell such as the Golgi apparatus.
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What is the function of rough ER?
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Rough ER is studded with ribosomes, therefore rough ER synthesizes protiens. It also helps modify proteins after they have been made
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What is the function of the golgi apparatus?
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The golgi apparatus contains enzymes that can modify carbohydrate chains first attached to proteins. The golgi apparatus sorts and packages proteins and lipids in esicles that depart from the outher face.
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What is the function of lysosomes?
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Lysosomes help recycle cellular material and destroy nonfunctional organelles and portions of cytoplasm. They also perform apoptosis.
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What is the function of vacuoles?
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Vacuoles are membraneous sacs and much larger than vesicles. These organelles usually store a substance.
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What is the function of mitochondria?
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Mitochondria are the powerhouses of he cell because they produce most of the ATP used by the cell through cellular respiration. Mitochondria convert energy within carbohydrates to that of ATP molecules.
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What is the function of chloroplasts?
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Chloroplasts use solar energy to synthesize carbohydrates. Chloroplasts have a double membrane and contain a series of internal membranes and vesicles.
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What is the function of microtubules?
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Microtubules are made of tubulin. Microtubules help maintain the shape of the cell and act as tracks along which organelles can move.
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What is the function of microfilaments?
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Microfilaments are long and extremely thin flexible fibers that occur in bundles. Microfilaments are involved of the movement of the cell and organelles.
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What is a gap junction?
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Junction between cells formed by the joining of two adjacent plasma membranes; it lends strength and allows ions, sugars, and small molecules to pass between cells
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What is a plasmodesmata?
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In plants, these are cytoplasmic strands that extend through pores in the cell wall and connect the cytoplasm of two adjacent cells.
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What is the function of the extracellular matrix?
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Support, adhesion, movement, and regulation.
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What is the fluid mosaic model?
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The membrane is a fluid phospholipid bilayer in which protein molecules are either partially or wholly embedded to form a mosaic pattern.
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General membrane function
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The membrane separates the internal environment from the external.
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Role of lipids in creating a semipermeable membrane
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Hyrdophilic heads of phospholipids are a part of the outside surface and the inside surface of the membrane. The hydrophobic tails make up the interior of the membrane.
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Function of channel proteins?
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Allows a particular molecule or ion to cross the plasma membrane freely.
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Function of carrier proteins?
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Combine with a substance and help it move across the membrane.
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Function of cell recognition proteins?
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These are glycoproteins that help the body recognize when it is being invaded by pathogens so that an immune reaction can occur.
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Function of receptor proteins?
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Have a shape that allows a specific molecule to bind to it. The binding of a molecule causes the protein to change its shape and bring about a cellular response.
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Function of enzymatic proteins?
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Catalyze a specific reaction.
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What is diffusion?
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Passive transport in which molecules move from a higher to lower concentration
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What is facilitated diffusion?
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Small molecules follow their concentration gradient with the help of a protein
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What is osmosis?
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Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a differential permeable membrane
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What is active transport?
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Active transport is the movement of small molecules against their concentration gradient
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What does the cell theory state?
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1. All organisms are composed of cells, 2. cells are the basic units of structure and function in organisms, and 3. cells come only from preexisting cells because cells are self-reproducing. |
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What is the endosybiotic hypothesis? |
A nucleated cell engulfed prokaryotes, which then became organelles and also that cilia and flagella arose here |
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What is the negative feedback loop?
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1. A sensor detects the stimulus and 2. a control center brings about an effect that dampens the stimulus. EX: Such as controlling blood glucose levels or body temperature |
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What is the positive feedback loop?
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A mechanism that brings about a greater change in the same direction. Such as contractions during childbirth. Or blood clotting and digestion of protein in the stomach. |
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Law of Segregation?
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1. Each person has two factors for each trait
2. The factors segregate during the formation of the gametes 3. Each gamete contains only one factor from each pair of factors 4. Fertilization gives each new individual two factors for each trait. |
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Law of Independent Assortment?
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1. Each pair of factors segregates independently of the other pairs.
2. All possible combinations of factors can occur in the gametes |
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Autosomal Recessive Disorder Examples
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1. Tay-Sachs Disease, (lips are accumulated in cells central nervous system) 2. Cystic Fibrosis, (thick mucus in lungs in digestive track) 3. Phenylketonuria, (PKU) doesn't convert phenylalanine to tyrosine,so it accumulates in the body-damage to central nervous system 4. Sickle Cell Anemia, hemogloin - amino acid |
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Autosomal Dominant Disorder Examples |
1. Neurofibromatosis, (nerve disorder) 2. Huntington Disease, (breaks down brain) 3. Achondroplasia, (dwarfism) |
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What is codominance?
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Two inherited alleles are expressed equally Ex: ABO blood group Black and White feathers on a chicken |
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What is epistasis? |
One gene masks the expression of another gene that is at a different locus and is independently inherited.
Ex: Eye (on X chromsome) skin color (Albinos) plant color |
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What is incomplete dominance?
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Offspring have an intermediate phenotype, as when a red-flowered plant and a white-flowered plant produce pink-flowered offspring. Probability 1:2:1 ratio Example: Curly versus straight hair |
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What is gene linkage?
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The existence of several genes on the same chromosome
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What is a linkage map? |
-Genetic map that show the relative locations of genes on a chromosome.
-The frequency with which these alles occur shows the distances between genes, as well as the order in which they occur on the organism. -the father apart the more frequent they cross- over than genes that rarely cross-over |
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What is multiple allelism? |
-There are more than two alleles for a particular trait; -each individual has only two of all possible alleles (Blood types) |
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What is polygenic inheritance?
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When a trait is governed by two or more sets of alleles.
Examples: Skin and eye color.
Disorders: Diabetes, Schizophrenia, Allergies, Cancers, Hypertension, Cleft Palate |
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What is sex-linkage?
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Alleles that are located on only the X or Y chromosome and inherited by offspring -- X linked can come from both parents, and given to either female or male offspring. Ex: Color-blindness, Hemophilia, muscular dystrophy Y-linked from only fathers, and given to sons
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What is a karyotope?
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Visual display of the chromosomes arranged by size, shape, and banding patterns. |
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What is polyploidy?
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Eukaryote has 3 (trisomy)or more complete sets of chromosomes |
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Human X-Linked Disorders
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Color Blindness, Muscular Dystrophy, Hemophilia, Fragile X Syndrome,
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What is aneuploidy?
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When an organism has more or less than the normal number of chromosomes (Trisomy, Monosomy)
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Klinefelter Syndrome
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male - has two or more X chromosomes in addition to a Y chromosome |
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Turner Syndrome
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Female - one X chromosome but the other is missing (XO) |
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Poly-X
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Female has more than two X Chromosomes |
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What is Tay-Sachs Disease?
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Child lacks the enzyme hexosamindiase A and also the glycosphingolipid store up in lysosomes. Usually die after age 3 or 4
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What is Sickle Cell Disease?
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Inherited disorder mostly among blacks where the gene located on chromosome 11, there is an abnormal hemoglobin molecule HbS that causes little sickle cells
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What is cystic fibrosis?
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Where there are abnormal secretions related to the chloride ion channel. Mucus in the bronchial tubes and pancreatic ducts are thick and viscous
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Bacteria and Archaea Type of Cell:
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Prokaryotic (single cell organism) |
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Eukarya Type of Cell:
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Eukaryotic i(Multcellular organism) |
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What did plants believed to be evolved from?
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Freshwater green algal species. Perhaps stoneworts (Chara)
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Four evolutionary events that can be associated with the four major groups of plants.
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1. Mosses nourish a multicellular embryo w/in body of female plant. |
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Nonvascular Plants are called what?
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Heptacophytes, Byrophytes |
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Example of seedless vascular plant?
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Psilophytes, Pterophytes (Ferns) Lycophyta (moss) Sphenophyta (ferns) Antherophytes (horsetail)
orginated-Devonian Period, Carboniferous Period |
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Examples of Gymnosperms (seeded plants)? |
Conifers, Cycads, Ginkgoes, Gnetophytes |
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Examples of Angiosperms? |
Flowering Plants!
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Relationships between flower, fruit, and seed... |
At the center of the flower is the carpel with three major regions:
-ovary(ovary becomes the fruit)- -fruit (becomes the ovules) -ovules become the seed |
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What are the functions of roots?
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1.Anchors the plant in the soil and gives it support while absorbing water and minerals for the plant from the soil.
2. Produce hormones that stimulate the growth of stems and coordinate their size with the size of the root |
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What are the functions of the stems?
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The stem supports and services leaves
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What is the function of leaves?
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The leaves carryout photosynthesis.
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What is the function of the stamen?
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This is the "male" portion of the flower.
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What is the function of the anther?
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Male reproductive cell Saclike container where pollen grains develop from the microspore |
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What is the function of the carpel? (Pistil) |
"Female" part of the plant: (pistil) -stigma (sticky, collects pollen, fertilization) -style (a tube on top of ovary) -Ovary (reproductive female organ) -Ovule (reproductive cell becomes seed) |
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What is the function of the stigma? |
Pollen grains adhere and germinate here( forming a pollen tube containing 2 nuclei that goes to the ovary) before fertilization occurs |
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What is the function of the ovary?
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Female reproductive organ that develops into fruit. |
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What is the function of the ovule?
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Structure that contains the gametophyte and has the potential to develop into a seed if ferilized. |
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Function of vascular tissues in plants?
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transports water and nutrients in a plant and provided support. Xylem transports water and nutrients from roots to leaves. Phloem transports organic compounds from leaves to the roots.
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Function of ground tissues?
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Fills the interior of the plant
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Parenchyma?
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most abundant cells and can carry on photosynthesis or store products of photosynthesis. May divide to give rise to specialized cells
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Collenchyma?
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Thicker than parenchyma and gives flexible support to immature regions of a plant body.
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Sclerenchyma?
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Have thick secondary walls with lignin which makes the walls hard and tough. Support mature regions of a plant.
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What is the function of the epidermal tissues in plants?
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Forms the outer protective covering of a plant
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Function of cuticle?
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Protects from water loss and against bacteria
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Function of stomata?
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When these are open, gas exchange and water loss occur
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Function of meristematic tissue?
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Embryonic tissue that helps the plant grow its entire life. Located at the tips of stems and roots where they increase the length
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What adaptation do C4 plants have that C3 plants don't have?
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Concentrical arranged mesophyll cells skip the photorespiration stage and produce a photosynthetic rate 2 to 3 times as much as C3 plants. Dominate in the hot dry climate! C3 plants dominate in the colder climates
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What is a tropism?
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Plant growth toward or away from a unidirectional stimulus
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What do auxins do?
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Auxins (indoleacetic acid) regulate growth especially cell elongation.
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What do gibberellins do?
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Promote increased stem growth; also involved in flowering and seed germination
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What do cytokins do?
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Promote cell division. prevent senscence, or losing natural color (aging), and initiate growth.
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Abscisic acid?
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Brings about closure of stomata and initiates and maintains seed and bud dormancy
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What does ethylene do?
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ripens fruits and controls the abscission of leaves, flowers, and fruits
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What is photoperiodism?
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A physiological response to changes in the length of day or night
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Short-day plants
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Flower when the day length is shorter (chrysanthemum, poinsettia)
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Long-day plants
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Flower when the day length is longer (spinach, wheat, barley, iris, clover, rose)
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Day-neutral plants
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Are not dependent on day length (tomato and cucumber)
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What are companion cells in plants?
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Cells associated with sieve-tube members in phloem of vascular plants. Also provide protein for the sieve-tubes
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What are sieve-tube members?
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Conducting cells of phloem in vascular plants. stacked cells |
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Is the diploid stage a sporophyte or gametophye?
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Sporophyte |
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What does the sporophyte create?
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A flower
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What does the anther produce?
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Microspore
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What does the ovule produce?
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Megaspore
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What does the microspore become?
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Gametophyte (pollen grain)
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What does the megaspore become?
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Female Gametophyte (Embryo Sac)
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By what process does the microspore and megaspore come into existence?
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Meiosis
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What does protoderm give rise to in plants?
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Epidermis
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What does ground meristem produce?
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Cortex and pith cells
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What does the procambium produce in plants?
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Vascular tissue
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Environmental requirements for seed germination
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Oxygen, adequate temperature for enzymes to act, adequate moisture for hydration of cells, and sometimes light
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What does dehiscent mean?
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Fruit splits open when ripe
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Example of aggregate fruit?
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Strawberry
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Example of multiple fruit?
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Pineapple
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Mature parts of the embryo stage of a seed
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1. Hypocotyl
2. Radicle 3. Epicotyl 4. Cotyledons |
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What is the plumule?
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Young leaves of epicotyl
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Epicotyl-->
Radicle--> |
Shoot
Root |
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What is vegetative Propogation? |
When plants give rise to new plants without the use of seeds. Very beneficial for economy.
Asexual Reproduction-exact copy of parent. EX: Tubers (potato), Rhizomes (irises), Stolens (strawberries), Bulbs (amarylllis), & Corms (gladiolus, crocus) |
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What is Down's Syndrome? |
Abnormal number of autosomes chromosome 21. -Triosmy for 21 (three) -only autosomal trisomy with adult survivers -1:700 live births (more if mother is over 40) -have some degree of mental retardation |
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What is Rett Syndrome? |
-X-linked dominate mutation -neurodevelopmenal disorder -rarely are affected individuals able to reproduce |
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What are the characteristics of Dicots? |
-2 cotyledons in seed -branched or networked veins in leaves -ringed vascular bundles (xylem & phloem tubes) -taproot system (center-star shaped Xylem surrounded by phoelm -flowers-petals in multiples of 4 or 5 -EX: oak, flowers, vegetables |
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What are the characteristics of Monocots? |
-1 cotyledon in seed -parallel veins in leaves -randon arrangement of vascular bundles -fibrous roots (alternating strands of xylem & phloem that surround a core of paracenchyma) -flowers-petals in multiples of 3 -Ex: grasses, lilies, palm trees |
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What are some common plant hormones & their function? |
Giberellins-cell division & elongation (65) Cytokinins-cell division & fruit development Abscisic Acid-opening & closing of stomata (controlling transpiration & formation of winter buds that pull plant into dormant stage) Ethylene-ripening of fruit Auxins-growth factors (tropisms) |
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What are the parts of the Alimentary Canal? |
GI track consists of: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. |
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What are the digestive system's organs? |
1. Alimentary Canal- Gi track 2. Accessory Organs- |
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What are the parts of digestion? |
ingestion, intake digestion, processing egestion, ecretion of wastes
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What is the function of the liver? |
produces bile which aids in digestion carries away broken down pigments and chemicals (into small intestines to be expelled in the feces) breaks down some nitrogenous molecules (proteins) excreting them as urea. |
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What are the parts of the forebrain? |
1. Olfactory lobes (smell), 2. cerebrum (sensory & motor, memory, speech, intelligence), 3. thalamus (senses), 4. hypthalamus (hunger, thirst, blood pressure, hostility, pain, & pleasure), & 5. pituitary gland (hormones) |
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What makes up the midbrain? |
between forebrain and hindbrain is the optic lobes (visual center connected to eyes by the optic nerve) |
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What makes up the hindbrain? |
1. cerebellum-balance, equillibrium, muscle coordination 2. medula oblongata-involuntary response such as breathing and heartbeat. |
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What color is nerve tissue? |
-gray matter is a grayish color -exists in the brain, spinal cord and throughout the body
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What is the myelin sheath? |
-Insulation covering nerve axons -speeds electrochemical conduction within the axon of the nerve cell -White colored, so called white matter. -made of individual cells called Schwann cells
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What are the Accessory organs? |
digestive system:
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. |
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What are the parts of the respiratory system? |
nose, nasal passages, pharynx, trachea, larynx (windpipe), glottis, epiglottis bronchi, 2 lungs, bronchioles, alveoli |
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What makes up the central nervous system? |
Brain and spinal cord |
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What makes up the nerves throughout the body? |
Peripheral Nervous system 1. sensory a. visceral from organs, b. somatic from body surface 2. Motor, a. somamatic to skeletal muscle b. autonomic-1. sympathic stimulate organs 2. parasympathetic back from organs to CNS |
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How does blood get Oxygen? |
Oxygen attaches to the hemoglobin of the red blood cells in the lungs, then travels to the heart through Pulmonary veins. |
