Set the Language

We weren't able to detect the audio language on your flashcards. Please select the correct language below.

Front

Back

Hint

Flashcards
»
Praxis 2 PLT Grades 7-12

Praxis 2 Plt Grades 7-12

by alisaridout, Nov. 2013

Subjects: Secondary Education

Favorite

Add to folder

Flag

Shuffle
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Alphabetize
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Front First
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Both Sides
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Read
Toggle On

Toggle Off

Reading...

Front

Card Range To Study

through

Play button

Progress

1/528

Click to flip

Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;

Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;

H to show hint;

A reads text to speech;

528 Cards in this Set

Front
Back
3rd side (hint)

Vygotsky	Social development, students learn best in students' context. i.e. in learning centers, readers' theater, working in groups or collaborative learning	"What a child can learn today with help from others, s/he can learn tomorrow alone."
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)	Range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently.	A student learns something that the student could not do without teacher help.
Schema	General understanding of what an object or event is typically like.	A child connecting new information to old information, i.e. Vygotsky, visual spider web
Abraham Maslow	Hierarchy of needs, students have to satisfy certain basic needs before they can satisfy higher needs. i.e. teacher gives students food in the morning or teacher provides a safe classroom.	humanism
Physiological Needs in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs	Hunger, thirst, sleep--5th level of needs	needs for basic nutrition, water, and adequate rest
Safety Needs in Maslow's Hierarchy	needs ensuring survival, such as having a safe place to learn--Maslow's 4th level of needs	security needs
Love and Belonging Needs in Maslow's Hierarchy	security, affection, and attention from others, Maslow's third highest level of needs	need to feel wanted and liked by others
Esteem in Maslow's Hierarchy	feeling good about one's self	self-respect
Self-actualization in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs	realization of one's potential--Maslow's highest level of needs	the top tier in Maslow's hierarchy, the highest degree
Jerome Bruner	learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge	The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience "generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions" (1957)
Thus children as they grow must acquire a way of representing the "recurrent regularities" in their environment.	Jerome Bruner	Important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts, categories, and problem-solving procedures invented previously by the culture, but also the ability to "invent" these things for oneself.
Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and "culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities."	Jerome Bruner	These culturally invented technologies include not just obvious things such as computers and television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture categorizes phenomena, and language itself.
Who theorized that language serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the individual's response?	Vygotsky	ZPD theorist
"The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners."	Jerome Bruner	learning to learn
In his research on cognitive development of children (1966), Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of representation:	1. enactive representation (action-based) 2. iconic representation (image-based) 3. symbolic representation (language-based)	Bruner's modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are stored and encoded in memory.
Bruner's Constructivist Theory suggests...	...it is effective when faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation.	This holds true even for adult learners. Bruner's work is in sharp contrast to Piaget and other stage theorists. Bruner states that a learner even at a very young age is capable of learning any material as long as the instruction is organized appropriately.
This appears first in Bruner's Modes of Representation Theory	Enactive (0-1 years)	Involves encoding action based information and storing it in our memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a rattle. The child represents past events through motor responses. This is not just limited to children. Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.
1) Ability grouping	The process of placing students of similar abilities into groups and attempting to match instruction to the needs of these groups
2) Accommodation	Responding to a new object or event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one
3) Accountability	Mandated obligation of teachers and other school personnel to accept responsibility for students’ performance on high-stakes assessments
4) Achievement tests	Standardized tests measuring how much students have learned in a given content area
5) Action research	Research conducted by teachers and other school personnel to address issues and problems in their own schools or classrooms
6) Active listening	A technique in which the listener paraphrases the other person's message and directly mentions the feelings that underlie the message
7) Advance organizer	An introduction to a lesson that provides an overall organizational scheme for the lesson
8) African American English	Dialect of some African American communities characterized by certain pronunciations, idioms, and grammatical constructions different from those of Standard English
9) Age-equivalent score	Test score indicating the age level of students to whom a test taker performed most similarly
10) Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, The (ADA)	Legislation in the United States that extends civil rights protection of persons with disabilities to private-sector employment, all public services, public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunication including physical accessibility and the removal of barriers to hotels, restaurants, grocery stores, and parks if that can be accomplished without great difficulty or expense
11) Analytic scoring	Scoring a student’s performance on an assessment by evaluating various aspects of it separately
12) Anecdotal records	Narrative accounts of observed student behavior or performance
13) Antecedent stimulus	Stimulus that increases the likelihood that a particular response will follow
14) Antecedents	Stimuli that precede and induce behaviors
15) Applied behavior analysis (ABA)	Systematic application of stimulus–response principles to address a chronic behavior problem
16) Apprenticeship	Mentorship in which a learner works intensively with an experienced adult to learn how to perform complex new skills
17) Aptitude tests	Standardized tests designed to predict the potential for future learning and measure general abilities developed over long periods of time
18) Assertive discipline	An approach to classroom management that promotes a clear and firm response style with students
19) Assessment	Process of observing a sample of a student’s behavior and drawing inferences about the student’s knowledge and abilities
20) Assimilation	Responding to and possibly interpreting a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme
21) Attention	Focusing of mental processes on particular stimuli
22) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)	Disorder marked by inattention, inability to inhibit inappropriate thoughts and behaviors, or both
23) Attributions	Personally constructed causal explanations for a success or failure
24) Attribution theory	Theoretical perspective focusing on people’s explanations (attributions) concerning the causes of events that befall them, as well as on the behaviors that result from such explanations
25) Authentic activity	An approach to instruction similar to one students might encounter in the outside world
26) Authentic assessment	Assessment of students’ knowledge and skills in a “real-life” context
27) Autism spectrum disorders	Disorders marked by impaired social cognition, social skills, and social interaction, presumably due to a brain abnormality; extreme forms often associated with significant cognitive and linguistic delays and highly unusual behaviors
28) Autonomy	Basic need to control the course of one's own life
29) Backward design	An approach to instructional planning in which a teacher first determines the desired end result (ie., what knowledge and skills students should acquire) and then identifies appropriate assessments and instructional strategies.
30) Behaviorism	Theoretical perspective in which learning and behavior are described and explained in terms of stimulus-response relationships, and motivation is often the result of deficit-based drives	Adherents to this perspective are called behaviorists.
31) Belongingness	General sense that one is an important and valued member of the classroom
32) Bloom’s taxonomy	A taxonomy of six cognitive processes, varying in complexity, that lessons might be designed to foster
33) Central tendency	Typical score for a group of scores
34) Challenge	Situation in which a learner believes that success is possible with sufficient effort
35) Checklist	Assessment tool with which a teacher evaluates student performance by indicating whether specific behaviors or qualities are present or absent
36) Classical conditioning	Form of learning in which a new, involuntary response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being presented at the same time
37) Classroom climate	Overall psychological atmosphere of the classroom
38) Classroom management	Establishment and maintenance of a classroom environment conducive to learning and achievement
39) Co-teaching	In co-teaching arrangements, two or more teachers teach together in the same classroom where students benefit from each teacher’s specialty (eg., a regular and a special education teacher working with regular students and students with a specific disability such as hearing impairments).
40) Code of ethics	Set of professional standards for behavior of members of a profession
41) Cognitive apprenticeship	Mentorship in which a teacher and a student work together on a challenging task and the teacher gives guidance about how to think about the task
42) Cognitive dissonance	Feeling of mental discomfort caused by new information that conflicts with current knowledge or beliefs
43) Cognitive modeling	Demonstrating how to think about as well as how to do a task
44) Cognitive style	Characteristic way in which a learner tends to think about a task and process new information; typically comes into play automatically rather than by choice
45) Collaboration	Joint communication and decision making among educational professionals to create an optimal learning environment for students and especially for students with disabilities	A philosophy about how to relate to others—how to learn and work.
46) Collective self-efficacy	Shared belief of members of a group that they can be successful when they work together on a task
47) Community of learners	Class in which teacher and students actively and collaboratively work to create a body of knowledge and help one another learn
48) Competence	Basic need to be effective in dealing with the environment
49) Comprehension monitoring	Process of checking oneself to be sure one understands and remembers newly acquired information
50) Computer-based instruction (CBI)	Instruction provided via computer technology
51) Concept map	Diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; used to enhance learning and memory of a topic
52) Conceptual change	Revision of one’s understanding of a topic in response to new information
53) Concrete operations stage	Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, in which adult-like logic appears but is limited to concrete reality
54) Conditioned response (CR)	Response that begins to be elicited by a particular (conditioned) stimulus through classical conditioning
55) Conditioned stimuli (CS)	Stimulus that begins to elicit a particular response through classical conditioning
56) Conferences	Face-to-face interactions with teachers and students or teachers and parents to communicate strengths in student learning or areas that need improvement
57) Consequences	Events (stimuli) that occur following a behavior and that influences the probability of the behaviors recurring
58) Conservation	Realization that if nothing is added or taken away, amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement
59) Constructivism	Theoretical perspective proposing that learners construct (rather than absorb) a body of knowledge from their experiences—knowledge that may or may not be an accurate representation of external reality	Adherents to this perspective are called constructivists.
60) Content validity	Extent to which an assessment includes a representative sample of tasks within the domain being assessed
61) Contingency	Situation in which one event (eg., reinforcement) happens only after another event (e.g., a specific response) has already occurred (one event is contingent on the other’s occurrence).
62) Contingency contract	Formal agreement between teacher and student that identifies behaviors the student will exhibit and the reinforcers that will follow
63) Convergent questions	Questions that have a single correct answer
64) Convergent thinking	The process of pulling several pieces of information together to draw a conclusion or solve a problem
65) Cooperative learning	Approach to instruction in which students work with a small group of peers to achieve a common goal and help one another learn
66) Creative thinking	New and original behavior that yields a productive and culturally appropriate result
67) Creativity (creative thinking)	New and original behavior that yields a productive and culturally appropriate result
68) Criterion-referenced score	Assessment score that specifically indicates what a student knows or can do
69) Critical thinking	The process of evaluating the accuracy and worth of information and lines of reasoning
70) Crystallized intelligence	Knowledge and skills accumulated from prior experience, schooling, and culture
71) Cueing	Use of simple signals to indicate that a certain behavior is desired or that a certain behavior should stop
72) Cultural bias	Extent to which assessment tasks either offend or unfairly penalize some students because of their ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic status
73) Cultural mismatch	Situation in which a child’s home culture and the school culture hold conflicting expectations for the child’s behavior
74) Culture	Behaviors and belief systems that members of a long-standing social group share and pass along to successive generations
75) Culture shock	Sense of confusion when a student encounters a culture with behavioral expectations very different from those previously learned
76) Curricular web	Visual representation of organized content and useful for instructional planning as it identifies how concepts are connected
77) Declarative knowledge	Knowledge related to “what is”—that is, to the nature of how things are, were, or will be
78) Deductive reasoning	Process of drawing a logical inference about something that must be true, given other information that has already been presented as true
79) Developmental milestone	Appearance of a new, developmentally more advanced behavior
80) Diagnostic assessment	Highly specialized, comprehensive and detailed procedures used to uncover persistent or recurring learning difficulties that require specially prepared diagnostic tests as well as various observational techniques
81) Dialect	Form of a language that has certain unique pronunciations, idioms, and grammatical structures and is characteristic of a particular region or ethnic group
82) Differentiated instruction	Practice of individualizing instructional methods, and possibly also individualizing specific content and instructional goals, to align with each student’s existing knowledge, skills, and needs
83) Direct instruction	Approach to instruction that uses a variety of techniques (eg., explanations, questions, guided and independent practice) in a fairly structured manner to promote learning of basic skills.
84) Discovery learning	Approach to instruction in which students develop an understanding of a topic through firsthand interaction with the environment
85) Disequilibrium	Inability to explain new events with existing schemes; tends to be accompanied by a sense of discomfort
86) Distributed intelligence	Idea that people act more “intelligently” when they have physical, symbolic, or social assistance
87) Divergent questions	Questions that have no single correct answer
88) Divergent thinking	The process of mentally moving in a variety of directions from a single idea
89) Due process	The principle that government must respect all legal rights that are owed to a person
90) Dynamic assessment	Systematic examination of how easily a student can acquire new knowledge or skills, perhaps with an adult’s assistance
91) Elaboration	Cognitive process in which learners embellish on new information based on what they already know
92) Emotional and behavioral disorders	Emotional states and behaviors that consistently and significantly disrupt academic learning and performance
93) Encoding	Changing the format of information being stored in memory in order to remember it more easily
94) Entity view of intelligence	Belief that intelligence is a “thing” that is relatively permanent and unchangeable
95) Equilibrium	State of being able to explain new events with existing schemes
96) Essay tests	An assessment format that requires students to make extended written responses to questions or problems
97) Ethnic group	People who have common historical roots, values, beliefs, and behaviors and who share a sense of interdependence
98) Ethnic identity	Awareness of one’s membership in a particular ethnic or cultural group, and willingness to adopt behaviors characteristic of the group
99) ETS score	Standard score with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100
100) Expectancy-value theory	Theoretical perspective proposing that human motivation is a function of two beliefs: that one can succeed in an activity (expectancy) and that there are direct or indirect benefits in performing the activity (value)
101) Expository instruction	Approach to instruction in which information is presented in more or less the same form in which students are expected to learn it
102) Extrinsic motivation	Motivation resulting from factors external to the individual and unrelated to the task being performed
103) Extrinsic reinforcer	Reinforcer that comes from the outside environment, rather than from within the learner
104) Fair and nondiscriminatory evaluation	Nonbiased, multifactored methods of evaluation to determine if child has disability and needs special education; nondiscriminatory evaluation with regard to race, culture, or native language, with placement decisions made on basis of multiple test scores and observations
105) Fluid intelligence	Ability to acquire knowledge quickly and adapt effectively to new situations
106) Formal assessment	Preplanned, systematic attempt to ascertain what students have learned
107) Formal operations stage	Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development, in which logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas as well as to concrete objects, and more sophisticated scientific and mathematical reasoning processes emerge
108) Formative evaluation	Evaluation conducted before or during instruction to facilitate instructional planning and enhance students’ learning
109) Free and appropriate public education (FAPE)	Special education and related services that (a) have been provided at public expense, under public supervision and direction and without charge; (b) meet the standards of the state educational agency; (c) include an appropriate preschool, elementary, or secondary school education in the state involved; and (d) are provided in conformity with the individualized education program
110) Functional analysis	Examination of inappropriate behavior and its antecedents and consequences to determine one or more purposes (functions) that the behavior might serve for the learner
111) g	Theoretical general factor in intelligence that influences one’s ability to learn in a wide variety of contexts
112) Giftedness	Unusually high ability in one or more areas, to the point where students require special educational services to help them meet their full potential
113) Goal theory	Theoretical perspective that portrays human motivation as being directed toward particular goals; the nature of these goals determines the specific ways in which people think and behave
114) Grade-equivalent score	Test score indicating the grade level of students to whom a test taker performed most similarly
115) Group differences	Consistently observed differences (on average) among diverse groups of students (eg., students of different genders or ethnic backgrounds).
116) Guided participation	A child’s performance, with guidance and support, of an activity in the adult world
117) Heterogeneous ability grouping	A strategy that groups students of varied ability instead of by grade/age level
118) High-stakes testing	Practice of using students’ performance on a single assessment instrument to make major decisions about students or school personnel
119) Higher-level cognitive process	A cognitive process that involves going well beyond information specifically learned (eg., by analyzing, applying, or evaluating it).
120) Higher-level question	Question that requires students to do something new with something they’ve learned (ie., to elaborate on it in some way).
121) Holistic scoring	Summarizing a student’s performance on an assessment with a single score
122) Humanism	Philosophical perspective in which people are seen as having tremendous potential for psychological growth and as continually striving to fulfill that potential	Adherents to this perspective are called humanists.
123) Hypermedia	Collection of multimedia, computer-based instructional materials (eg., text, pictures, sound, animations) that students can examine in a sequence of their own choosing.
124) I-messages	A form of communication in which a person directly states what another person is doing, its effect, and how he or she feels about it (eg., “When you all call out, I can’t concentrate on each answer, and I’m frustrated”).
125) Inclusion	The practice of educating all students, including those with severe and multiple disabilities, in neighborhood schools and general education classrooms
126) Incremental view of intelligence	Belief that intelligence can improve with effort and practice
127) Individual constructivism	Theoretical perspective that focuses on how people, as individuals, construct meaning from the events around them
128) Individual differences	Variability in abilities and characteristics (intelligence, personality, etc) among students at a particular age and within any group.
129) Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)	US. legislation granting educational rights to people with cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities from birth until age 21; initially passed in 1975, it has been amended and reauthorized in 1997 and again in 2004. IDEA operates under six basic principles: zero reject, nondiscriminatory identification and evaluation, free and appropriate public education, least restrictive environment, due process, and parent and student participation in shared decision making with regard to educational planning.
130) Individualized education program (IEP)	Written document required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (PL. 94-142) for every child with a disability; includes statements of present performance, annual goals, instructional objectives, specific educational services needed, extent of participation in the general education program, evaluation procedures, and relevant dates, and must be signed by parents as well as educational personnel.
131) Inductive reasoning	Collecting data to draw a conclusion that may or may not be true
132) Informal assessment	Assessment that results from a teacher’s spontaneous, day-to-day observations of how students behave and perform in class
133) Information processing theory	Theoretical perspective that focuses on how learners mentally think about (process) new information and events and how such processes change with development
134) Instructional goal	A desired long-term outcome of instruction
135) Instructional objective	Desired outcome of a lesson or unit
136) Intelligence	Ability to modify and adjust behaviors to accomplish new tasks successfully; involves many different mental processes and may vary in nature depending on one’s culture
137) Intelligence test	General measure of current cognitive functioning, used primarily to predict academic achievement over the short run
138) Internalized motivation	Adoption of others’ priorities and values as one’s own
139) Intrinsic motivation	Motivation resulting from personal characteristics or inherent in the task being performed
140) Intrinsic reinforcer	Reinforcer provided by oneself or inherent in a task being performed
141) IQ score	Score on an intelligence test, determined by comparing a student’s performance on the test with the performance of others in the same age group	For most tests, it is a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
142) IRE cycle	Adult–child interaction marked by adult initiation (e.g., a question), child response, and adult evaluation.
143) Least restrictive environment	Educational setting for special needs child that most closely resembles a regular school program and also meets child’s special educational needs
144) Learned helplessness	General, fairly pervasive belief that one is incapable of accomplishing tasks and has little or no control over the environment
145) Learner-centered instruction	Approach to teaching in which instructional strategies are chosen largely on the basis of students’ existing abilities, predispositions, and needs
146) Learner-directed instruction	Approach to instruction in which students have considerable say in the issues they address and how to address them
147) Learning	Long-term change in mental representations or associations due to experience
148) Learning communities	New and experienced teachers working together to pose problems, identify discrepancies between theories and practices, challenge common routines, draw on the work of others for generative frameworks, and attempt to make visible much of that which is taken for granted about learning and teaching
149) Learning disability	Deficiency in one or more specific cognitive processes despite relatively normal cognitive functioning in other areas
150) Learning strategy	Intentional use of one or more cognitive processes for a particular learning task
151) Lesson planning	Instructional planning that requires writing a predetermined guide for a lesson that identifies learning goals or objectives, necessary materials, instructional strategies, and one or more assessment methods
152) Lesson study	A form of study group in which teachers collectively design a lesson, watch each other teach that lesson, and then share in discussion of it
153) Locus of causality	The location—internal or external—of the cause of behavior
154) Logical consequence	Unpleasant consequence that follows naturally or logically from a student’s misbehavior
155) Long-term memory	Component of memory that holds knowledge and skills for a relatively long time
156) Lower-level question	Question that requires students to express what they’ve learned in essentially the same form as they learned it
157) Mastery goal	Desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills
158) Mastery learning	Approach to instruction in which students learn one topic thoroughly before moving to a subsequent one
159) Mastery orientation	General, fairly pervasive belief that one is capable of accomplishing challenging tasks
160) Maturation	Unfolding of genetically controlled changes as a child develops
161) Mean (M)	Mathematical average of a set of scores
162) Meaningful learning	Cognitive process in which learners relate new information to things they already know
163) Median	Middle score in a group of scores
164) Mental retardation	Disability characterized by significantly below-average general intelligence and deficits in practical and social skills
165) Mentoring	Formal and informal relationships between a beginning teacher and an experienced teacher that are sources of information and support for the beginning teacher
166) Metacognition	Knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes, as well as conscious attempts to engage in behaviors and thought processes that increase learning and memory
167) Mnemonic	Memory aid or trick designed to help students learn and remember a specific piece of information
168) Mode	Most frequently occurring score
169) Model	Person who demonstrates a behavior for someone else
170) Modeling	Demonstrating a behavior for another; also, observing and imitating another’s behavior
171) Motivation	Inner state that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior
172) Multicultural curriculum	Instructional concepts that integrate perspectives and experiences of numerous diverse groups and representing various cultures, ethnicities, ages, gender, and religions
173) Multiple Intelligences, Theory of	A theory that claims people are “intelligent” in many different areas, including cognitive, emotional, and social domains
174) Need for autonomy	Basic need for independence
175) Need for arousal	Ongoing need for either physical or cognitive stimulation
176) Need for competence	Basic need to believe that one can deal effectively with the overall environment
177) Need for relatedness	Basic need to feel socially connected to others and to secure others’ love and respect
178) Need for self-determination	Basic need to believe that one has some autonomy and control regarding the course of one’s life
179) Negative reinforcement	Phenomenon in which a response increases as a result of the removal (rather than presentation) of a stimulus
180) Normal distribution (normal curve)	Theoretical pattern of educational and psychological characteristics in which most individuals lie somewhere in the middle range and only a few lie at either extreme
181) Norm-referenced score	Assessment score that indicates how a student’s performance on an assessment compares with the average performance of others
182) Norms	In assessment, data regarding the typical performance of various groups of students on a standardized test or other norm-referenced measure of a particular characteristic or ability
183) Objective testing	Multiple-choice, matching, true/false, short-answer, and fill-in tests; scoring answers does not require interpretation
184) Operant conditioning	Form of learning in which a response increases in frequency as a result of its being followed by reinforcement
185) Overgeneralization	Overly broad view of the objects or events that a concept includes
186) Paper-pencil assessment	Assessment in which students provide written responses to written items
187) Para-educator	Also known as a paraprofessional educator, a person who is trained to serve as an instructional assistant or teacher aide and is responsible for specialized assistance to classroom teachers or students
188) Paraprofessionals	Trained (training may vary from state to state) classroom aides who assist teachers; may include parents
189) Pedagogical content knowledge	Knowledge about effective methods of teaching a specific content area
190) Pedagogical knowledge	Knowledge about effective methods of teaching
191) Peer tutoring	Approach to instruction in which one student provides instruction to help another student master a classroom topic
192) Percentile ranking	Test score indicating the percentage of people in the norm group getting a raw score less than or equal to a particular student's raw score
193) Performance-approach goal	Desire to look good and receive favorable judgments from others
194) Performance assessment	Assessment in which students demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a nonwritten fashion
195) Performance-avoidance goal	Desire not to look bad or receive unfavorable judgments from others
196) Portfolio	Collection of a student’s work systematically compiled over a lengthy time period
197) Positive behavioral support (PBS)	Systematic intervention that addresses chronic misbehaviors by (a) identifying the purposes those behaviors might serve for a student and (b) providing more appropriate ways for a student to achieve the same ends
198) Positive psychology	Theoretical perspective that portrays people as having many unique qualities that propel them to engage in productive, worthwhile activities; it shares early humanists’ belief that people strive to fulfill their potential but also shares contemporary psychologists’ belief that theories of motivation must be research-based
199) Positive reinforcement	Phenomenon in which a response increases as a result of the presentation (rather than removal) of a stimulus
200) Practicality	Extent to which an assessment instrument or procedure is inexpensive and easy to use and takes only a small amount of time to administer and score
201) Preoperational stage	Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which children can think about objects beyond their immediate view but do not yet reason in logical, adult-like ways
202) Presentation punishment	Punishment involving presentation of a new stimulus, presumably one a learner finds unpleasant
203) Primary reinforcer	Consequence that satisfies a biologically built-in need
204) Prior knowledge activation	Process of reminding learners of things they have already learned relative to a new topic
205) Problem-based learning	Classroom activity in which students acquire new knowledge and skills while working on a complex problem similar to those in the outside world
206) Problem solving	Going beyond the simple application of previously learned rules to formulate new answers and achieve a goal
207) Procedural knowledge	Knowledge concerning how to do something (e.g., a skill).
208) Project-based learning	Classroom activity in which students acquire new knowledge and skills while working on a complex, multifaceted project that yields a concrete end product
209) Prompting	Questions that help students change a wrong provisional answer into the right final answer
210) Proximal goal	A concrete goal that can be accomplished within a short time period; it may be a stepping stone toward a longer-term goal
211) Punishment	Consequence that decreases the frequency of the response it follows
212) Rating scale	Assessment tool with which a teacher evaluates student performance by rating aspects of the performance on one or more continua
213) Raw score	Assessment score based solely on the number or point value of correctly answered items
214) Reciprocal causation	Mutual cause-and-effect relationships among environment, behavior, and personal variables as these three factors influence learning and development
215) Reciprocal teaching	Approach to teaching reading and listening comprehension in which students take turns asking teacher-like questions of classmates
216) Reflections	Students’ own evaluations and descriptions of their work and their feelings about their achievements
217) Reflective listening	A form of communication in which the listener paraphrases what the speaker has said, to check for understanding of content and emotional tone
218) Reflective practice	The process of teachers’ thinking about and analyzing their work to assess its effectiveness
219) Rehearsal	Cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it
220) Reinforcement	Act of following a response with a reinforcer
221) Reinforcer	Consequence of a response that leads to increased frequency of the response
222) Reliability	Extent to which an assessment instrument yields consistent information about the knowledge, skills, or characteristics being assessed
223) Removal punishment	Punishment involving removal of an existing stimulus, presumably one a learner finds desirable and doesn’t want to lose
224) Retrieval	Process of “finding” information previously stored in memory
225) Rote learning	Learning information in a relatively uninterpreted form, without making sense of it or attaching much meaning to it
226) Rubric	List of components that a student’s performance on an assessment task should ideally include
227) Running record	Narrative records of a child’s activities during a single period of time
228) Scaffolding	Support mechanism that helps a learner successfully perform a task within his or her zone of proximal development
229) Schema	General understanding of what an object or event is typically like
230) Scheme	In Piaget’s theory, organized group of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment
231) Scope	The breadth and depth of content to be covered in a curriculum over a certain period of time,	e.g. week, grading period, year, or K-12.
232) Secondary reinforcer	Consequence that becomes reinforcing over time through its association with another reinforcer
233) Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973	A federal law that prohibits the denial of participation in, benefits of, or discrimination in any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance because of a documented disability, history of a disability, or the appearance of having a disability
234) Sequence	The order in which content is delivered to learners over time
235) Self-determination theory	Theoretical perspective proposing that human beings have a basic need for autonomy (self-determination) about the courses that their lives take; it further proposes that humans also have basic needs to feel competent and to have close, affectionate relationships with others	Also see need for self-determination.
236) Self-efficacy	Belief that one is capable of executing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals
237) Self-handicapping	Behavior that undermines one’s success as a way of protecting self-worth during difficult tasks
238) Semantic knowledge	Knowledge of the meanings of words and word combinations
239) Sensitive period	Genetically determined age range during which a certain aspect of a child’s development is especially susceptible to environmental conditions
240) Sensorimotor stage	Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which schemes are based largely on behaviors and perceptions
241) Sensory register	Component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a very brief time (perhaps one to two seconds)
242) Service learning	Activity that promotes learning and development through participation in a meaningful community service project
243) Situated learning and cognition	Knowledge, behaviors, and thinking skills acquired and used primarily within certain contexts, with limited if any use in other contexts
244) Situated motivation	Motivation that emerges at least partly from conditions in a learner’s immediate environment
245) Situational interest	Interest evoked temporarily by something in the environment
246) Spiral curriculum	Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time
247) Standard deviation (SD)	Statistic that reflects how close together or far apart a set of scores is and thereby indicates the variability of the scores
248) Standard English	Form of English generally considered acceptable at school, as reflected in textbooks and grammar instruction
249) Standard score	Test score indicating how far a student’s performance is from the mean with respect to standard deviation units
250) Standardization	Extent to which assessments involve similar content and format and are administered and scored similarly for everyone
251) Standardized test	Test developed by test-construction experts and published for use in many different schools and classrooms
252) Stanine	Standard score with a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2; it is always reported as a whole number
253) Student at risk	Student who has a high probability of failing to acquire the minimum academic skills necessary for success in the adult world
254) Student with special needs	Student who is different enough from peers that he or she requires specially adapted instructional materials and practices
255) Social learning theory	Theoretical perspective in which learning by observing others is the focus of study	Initially, this perspective focused largely on stimulus-response relationships. More recently, it has come to incorporate cognitive processes as well, hence its alternative name social cognitive theory.
256) Social constructivism	Theoretical perspective that focuses on people’s collective efforts to impose meaning on the world
257) Social negotiation	Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others to co-construct meaning while respecting different perspectives
258) Stage theory	Theory that depicts development as a series of relatively discrete periods (stages)
259) Subculture	Group that resists the ways of the dominant culture and adopts its own norms for behavior
260) Summative evaluation	Evaluation conducted after instruction to assess students’ final achievement
261) Task analysis	The process of identifying specific knowledge, behaviors, or cognitive processes necessary to master a particular subject area or skill
262) Teacher-directed instruction	Approach to instruction in which the teacher is largely in control of the content and course of the lesson
263) Team teaching	Teachers share the responsibility for two or more classes, dividing up the subject areas between them
264) Temperament	Genetic predisposition to respond in particular ways to one’s physical and social environments
265) Transfer	Phenomenon in which something a person has learned at one time affects how the person learns or performs in a later situation
266) Triarchic theory of intelligence	View of intelligence; proponents argue that that intelligent behavior arises from a balance between analytical, creative, and practical abilities
267) Unconditioned response (UCR)	Response that is elicited by a particular (unconditioned) stimulus without prior learning
268) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)	Stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning
269) Undergeneralization	Overly narrow view of the objects or events that a concept includes
270) Unit plan	A long-range plan covering one topic through multiple lessons and integrating the learning of skills and concepts for various subject areas including reading, writing, mathematics, science, social studies and the arts
271) Validity	Extent to which an assessment instrument actually measures what it is intended to measure and allows appropriate inferences about the characteristic or ability in question
272) Variability or variance	Degree of difference or deviation from mean
273) Vicarious punishment	Phenomenon in which a response decreases in frequency when another person is observed being punished for that response
274) Vicarious reinforcement	Phenomenon in which a response increases in frequency when another person is observed being reinforced for that response
275) Visual imagery	Process of forming mental pictures of objects or ideas
276) Visual-spatial ability	Ability to imagine and mentally manipulate two-and three-dimensional figures
277) Wait time	Length of time a teacher pauses, after either asking a question or hearing a student’s comment, before saying something
278) Working memory	Component of memory that holds and actively thinks about and processes a limited amount of information
279) z-score	Standard score with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1
280) Zone of proximal development (ZPD)	Range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently
This appears second in Bruner's Modes of Representation Theory	Iconic (1-6 years) This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture in the mind's eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they don't experience it.	This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information.
This appears third in Bruner's Modes of Representation Theory	Symbolic (7 years onwards) This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as language. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions and images have a fixed relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class.	Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified, etc., so the user isn't constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.
According to Bruner, why is language important?	Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts. Bruner argues that language can code stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet flexible cognition.	The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they represent and can remove the constraints of the "here and now" concept. Basically, he sees the infant as an intelligent and active problem solver from birth, with intellectual abilities basically similar to those of the mature adult. According to Bruner, the child represents the world to himself in three different ways.
Educational implications, for Bruner (1961), states...	...the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations.	Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.
Jerome Bruner's text "The Process of Education" states...	...students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.	constructivist theory
Benjamin Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Objectives (1956)...	...consists of Bloom's Wheel, with verbs and matching assessment types. The verbs are intended to be feasible and measurable.
Bloom's first level of learning...	knowledge	remembering Can the student recall or remember the information?
Bloom's second level of learning...	comprehension	understanding Can the student explain ideas or concepts?
Bloom's third level of learning...	application	Can the student use the information in a new way?
Bloom's fourth level of learning...	analysis	Can the student distinguish between the different parts?
Bloom's fifth level of learning...	evaluation	critiquing Can the student justify a stand or position?
Bloom's sixth level of learning...	synthesis	creating Can the student create a new product or point of view?
Numerous studies have shown that variety in teaching methods and styles promotes student achievement and helps maintain attention.	Vary Practice Activities (Price, 110)	The nature of practice activities, therefore, should be varied. At one time the teacher may have students respond in unison; at another time, the teacher may have students work in pairs, where they ask one another questions; still another time, he or she may call on individuals or have all the students do written exercises at their seats.
What is recitation?	Perhaps the most common of all practice activities, whereby the teacher poses questions to the class and calls on individuals to answer.	If the student called on gives the incorrect response, then the teacher calls on another student. If the answer is correct, then the teacher ask a different question.
Alternatives to recitation teachers can and should use, (Price 110):	demonstrations oral reports slides movies television radio recordings
(Price 111) Name some small group activities to help provide practice in newly learned material:	debates role-playing sessions panel discussions project construction discussions of test answers
The duration of practice should be varied according to the difficulty of the material. Give one example of a concept needing considerable repetition and practice exercises (Price 111).	Grammatical concepts of subject-verb-object may need considerable repetition and practice exercises.
Another consideration of the duration of practice is...	...the ability of the learner.	The teacher may give the students who are catching on quickly new material to work on while working with the slower students individually or in small groups (Price 111).
What is the mother of learning, according to Price (113)?	Repetition	Unfortunately, it can also be the father of boredom.
Why is it essential to vary the kinds of repetitive practices?	To prevent practice exercises from becoming monotonous and unproductive.
According to Price (115) when assigning seat-work to students, what three points does the teacher explain clearly to the students?	1. What is to be done. 2. How to do it. 3. What the student should learn from doing it.
According to Price (115), with seat-work, the teacher's job is to make sure that individual students are:	1. Staying on task. 2. Understanding what they are doing (not just going through the motions) 3. receiving help when they need it.
What should teachers be especially watchful for with seat-work assignments?	Low achievers who often do poorly on seat-work assignments.
The ability of the human mind to sort, match, combine, and arrange perceptions, experiences, and information is called...	...reasoning.	...is the process of using stored information to understand experiences, make inferences, and form conclusions. You should review information-processing theory.
Students have difficulty acquiring new knowledge when it contradicts their prior knowledge. A teacher can help students overcome this obstacle to learning by providing opportunities for students to...	...challenge preconceptions and replace them when appropriate.	When students confront contradictory evidence, they experience disequilibrium; addressing it directly allows students to accommodate. For more information on accommodation, review Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Also, revisit your notes on constructivism.
According to cognitive theory, the most valid evidence that students have learned a body of information is that they can...	...apply what they have learned in a new setting.	This is known as transfer, which is a higher order thinking skill than simply repeating information on demand. Review information-processing theory, with a particular interest on memory.
The work of theorist Albert Bandura has formed the foundation for research in which of the following areas related to childhood development?	The connection between violent media images and aggressive behavior	Although Albert Bandura himself did not study media, his study of children imitating a model's aggression toward the Bobo doll is frequently used in this context. For additional information on Bandura and modeling, you should review social learning theory.
A science teacher has students work in groups to classify a number of different organisms in preparation for homework assignment in which students will complete the same task on their own. This activity demonstrates an application of which of the following learning theories?	Sociocultural theory	Sociocultural learning theory is based on the interaction among individuals. Group work exemplifies learning from peers, which is foundational in this theory. For additional information, review this theory, along with Vygotsky's concept of scaffolding.
The work of Lawrence Kohlberg supports which of the following statements about children's moral development?	Children progress through the stages of moral development by encountering situations that challenge their present view.	The best answer is that children progress through stages of moral development by encountering situations that challenge their present view. Not all individuals reach the highest stages in his progression, nor do they progress at a constant rate. Note that Kohlberg's theory is like Piaget's in this way, with a stage -like progression that is often based on experiences of disequilibrium. For additional information, review cognitive-developmental theories of development in general, and Kohlberg's theory in particular. (Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning)
The primary purpose for which Benjamin Bloom and others devised educational taxonomies was to...	...help teachers classify educational goals.
3.1) The ability of the human mind to sort, match, combine, and arrange perceptions, experiences, and information is called...	...reasoning
3.2) Students have difficulty acquiring new knowledge when it contradicts their prior knowledge. A teacher can help students overcome this obstacle to learning by providing opportunities for students to...	...challenge preconceptions and replace them when appropriate
3.3) According to cognitive theory, the most valid evidence that students have learned a body of information is that they can...	...apply what they have learned in a new setting
3.4) The work of theorist Albert Bandura has formed the foundation for research in which of the following areas related to childhood development...	...sociocultural theory
Which of the following is an accurate generalization about how people learn?	People learn best when the conditions of learning are varied.	Constructivist theory postulates that people organize, interpret, and add to their new knowledge in part based on their prior knowledge and beliefs. In addition, theories of memory suggest that information presented via multiple modalities (e.g., text and pictures) is richer than that presented through a single modality (e.g., text alone). For additional information, review constructivism and conceptions of memory and cognitive processes in Chapter 3 of the ETS online tutorial.
Which of the following situations show the effects of classical conditioning?	Students rise to exit the classroom when the bell rings.	Classical conditioning is learning that arises when a previously neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes a reflexive response. In this case, students have learned to associate the bell with rising. Note that putting a star on a chart and moving a student away from friends both are examples of operant conditioning, not classical conditioning. You can review the differences, and other elements of behaviorist theory, chapter 3 of the ETS tutorial online.
A journalism teacher tests student's powers of observation by asking them to describe a physical education teacher who entered the room briefly to make an announcement. Many of the students' incorrect observation?	The schema of a physical education teacher includes wearing a whistle.	Memory is reconstructive. Often we remember things we expect to have seen even if we observed accurately in the first place. For additional information about reconstructive memory, see chapter 3 of this tutorial and other notes you may have about information processing.
In which of the following situations is the educator's intent to build students' self-efficacy?	A soccer coach reminds players that they defeated their opponents easily in their last contest.
Which of the following observations describes atypical speech and language development for a child entering preschool?	Uses imagination to create stories	Using imagination to create stories is atypical for a child entering preschool, assuming that the child enters at around age 2 or 3 years. The other answers are typical milestones for children of this age. For additional information, review language development, which is discussed briefly in Table 3.4 in Chapter 3 of this tutorial.
In which of the following grade ranges would a teacher be most likely to observe an increase in students' willingness to acknowledge errors, self-critique, and revise work?	Grades 6-8, middle school.	Prior to that age, children generally don't have the metacognitive skills to recognize their errors and make revisions--difficult tasks even at older ages! Metacognition is defined in the tutorial in Chapter 3; you may want to seek additional information on its development and on how teachers can encourage children to engage in metacognitive practices.
A kindergarten teacher is concerned about the lack of typical physical development in one of her students. Her concern would most likely be based on the student's inability to...	...turn pages one by one.	Kindergarteners typically have the fine motor coordination to turn pages one by one, although they often have some difficulty with the other 3 choices. Chapter 3 of this tutorial provides some examples of typical physical development; you may want to seek additional information about fine and gross motor development at particular ages.
A fifth-grade student consistently ignores the rules of playground games, sometimes resulting in injury to herself and others and frustration among her teammates. This behavior indicates a lack of typical development in which of the following domains?	Social	The best answer is that this child is not developing typical social skills, which include getting along with others and following conventional rules that apply to the group. Note that knowing the rules is a cognitive skill, and attending to others' feelings is a socioemotional skill, whereas the coordination needed for playing the game itself is a physical ability. You can review information about development in each of these domains in chapter 3 of the tutorial. Review the textbook from a child development course.
Which sequence represents the process to be followed when teaching students to acquire a new skill? 1. Evaluating student performance 2. Explaining and demonstrating the skill 3. Allowing the student to perform alone 4. Coaching the student based on evaluation results 5. Helping the student perform the skill under supervision (A) 1, 2, 3, 5, 4 (B) 2, 3, 1, 5, 4 (C) 2, 3, 5, 1, 4 (D) 2, 5, 3, 1, 4	(D) 2, 5, 3, 1, 4	The best answer is 2, 5, 3, 1, 4. Explaining typically comes first, then helping the student to perform the task is next. Once students have mastered the task with assistance, teachers typically allow students to try the task alone. At that point, teachers evaluate students' individual performance and offer additional coaching as feedback from that evaluation. Skill acquisition is considered procedural learning, which is a type of memory, and this type of sequence is a good illustration of sociocultural influences on learning, and in particular scaffolding (discussed briefly in Chapter 3 of this tutorial).
Which of the following statements best summarizes the view of Jerome Bruner about how people learn? (A) People learn by making connections between prior knowledge and new information (B) People learn by acquiring new behaviors (C) People learn by observing the behavior of others (D) People learn by building “mental maps” in response to elements in their environment	(A) People learn by making connections between prior knowledge and new information	The best answer is that people learn by making connections between prior and new information. Bruner is associated with the constructivist theories of learning, which are described in Chapter 3 of this tutorial. Observing behavior is characteristic of social learning theory; mental maps are characteristic of information processing theory. "Acquiring new behaviors" is a very general statement to describe learning, probably most closely associated with a behaviorist theory.
The concept of a spiraling curriculum, where learners continually build knowledge on what they already know, has its basis in the theories of (A) Lev Vygotsky (B) Jerome Bruner (C) Lawrence Kohlberg (D) Benjamin Bloom	(B) Jerome Bruner	The best answer is Bruner, who is associated with the constructivist theories of learning, which are described in Chapter 3 of this tutorial. Vygotsky is associated with sociocultural theory, Kohlberg with theories of moral development, and Bloom with taxonomies for learning objectives.
Which of the following learning experiences would John Dewey find most compatible with his philosophy of education? (A) After presenting the platform of a political candidate, a history teacher asks students to defend their position on a key issue by rebutting arguments against it. (B) Students spend three periods a week involved in renovating a homeless shelter as part of a service project carried out within their industrial arts class. (C) A kindergarten teacher says, "You're going to learn a new sound. When I move my finger under the letter, I'll say the sound. I'll keep on saying it as long as I touch under it. Then it will be your turn.” (C) A music teacher pairs students and has them alternate roles: one student plays a rhythm on a drum while the other listens to be sure that the rhythm has been played correctly.	(B) Students spend three periods a week involved in renovating a homeless shelter as part of a service project carried out within their industrial arts class.	The best answer is the renovation of the homeless shelter. Dewey believed that learning was best situated in the community and that students should be involved in authentic activities. The Chapter 3 tutorial describes Dewey as a constructivist and an early pioneer of inquiry learning. You may want to read additional information about this important theorist.
Metacognition can best be described as (A) using abstract thinking to solve mental problems (B) applying ideas learned in one situation to another situation (C) remembering and processing information usefully (D) knowing and regulating one’s mental processes	(D) knowing and regulating one’s mental processes	The best answer is knowing and regulating one's mental processes; this is the definition of metacognition. Abstract thinking to solve mental problems is reasoning; applying ideas from situation to situation is a form of problem-solving involving transfer. Remembering is, of course, part of memory. You may want to review information-processing theory, beginning with the brief discussion in Chapter 3 of this tutorial.
Students can be taught to throw and catch any ball without being taught how to throw and catch every type of ball used in sports. This ability is known as (A) transfer (B) cause and effect (C) patterning (D) accommodation	(A) transfer	The best answer is transfer – something a person has learned at one time affects how the person learns or performs in a later situation. You may want to review information-processing, which is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3 of this tutorial.
Operant conditioning becomes useful for behavioral modification as children mature because (A) older children are more responsive to punishment (B) the behavior and its consequence can be separated by time (C) the number of available rewards increases (D) once a behavior is learned, it no longer requires a consequence	(B) the behavior and its consequence can be separated by time	The best answer is that behavior and consequence can be separated in time. As they mature, children learn to delay gratification and to anticipate punishment and rewards. For additional information on operant conditioning and its uses, you should review the information in Chapter 3 of this tutorial.
During recess, a teacher observes that a student is becoming frustrated and angry over having to wait in line to go down the slide. Which of the following comments by the teacher is most likely to support the development of the student’s self-regulation skills? (A) “If you can’t wait your turn nicely, you can’t play on the slide.” (B) “There is no one at the climbing wall right now. Why don’t you climb until the slide is free?” (C) “You can’t always have what you want immediately. But you will get your turn if you wait.” (D) “If you wait nicely today, I’ll make sure you are first in line tomorrow.”	(C) “You can’t always have what you want immediately. But you will get your turn if you wait.”	The best answer is to tell the student, "You can't always have what you want immediately, but you will get your turn if you wait." Prohibiting the child from playing on the slide, guaranteeing a turn tomorrow, and suggesting an alternative activity all are responses that have the teacher acting as the regulator, not the child learning to do it himself or herself. The tutorials for Chapters 3 and 5 both include additional information on the development of self-regulatory skill.
The theoretical basis supporting the zone of proximal development is that a student’s cognitive ability is most accurately measured by his or her capacity to (A) apply prior knowledge to solve novel problems (B) draw conclusions from abstract information (C) solve problems independently or with the help of an adult (D) perform at about the same level as peers on a standardized test	(C) solve problems independently or with the help of an adult	The best answer is that the zone of proximal development is bounded by the ability to solve problems independently or with help from a more advanced person. In other words, if a student can't perform a task even with assistance, or if the student can already perform it independently, the task is not in the child's zone of proximal development. This concept is central to Vygotsky's theory of development; for more information on sociocultural theory, see Chapter 3 of this tutorial.
A third-grade science teacher working with students on the scientific process struggles with his students’ failure to produce well-written hypothesis statements. The most likely cause of the students’ difficulty is that the (A) teacher has not sufficiently modeled the task (B) students cannot assimilate all the steps in a multi-step process (C) task exceeds the students’ cognitive development (D) students’ writing instruction is geared toward creative rather than expository writing	(C) task exceeds the students’ cognitive development	The best answer is that this task exceeds the students' level of cognitive development, especially if they cannot complete it even with the teacher's help – it's just not in their zone of proximal development. This concept is central to Vygotsky's theory of development; for more information on sociocultural theory, see Chapter 3 of this tutorial.
In which of the following educational settings will a teacher have to be most aware of students’ need for the support and approval of their peers? (A) Preschool (B) K–grade 4 (elementary school) (C) Grades 7–9 (middle school) (D) Grades 10–12 (high school)	(C) Grades 7–9 (middle school)	The best answer is middle school, Grades 7-9. This is the time at which peer pressure peaks and comparison to others is common. Review typical behaviors of students during each developmental period, beginning with the summary in Chapter 3 of this tutorial.
A teacher uses a system of punishments and rewards in his high school classroom to regulate students’ conduct. Contrary to what the teacher planned, the system has resulted in increased discipline problems. The most likely explanation for this situation is that a punishments and rewards system is (A) most effective with students younger than high school age (B) most effective with students older than high school age (C) ineffective for handling discipline problems at any age (D) ineffective unless students are involved in determining acceptable conduct	(A) most effective with students younger than high school age	The best answer is that this system is most effective with students younger than high-school age. For a better understanding of rewards and punishments in the classroom, review the Chapter 3 and 5 tutorials.
In which of the following grade ranges will there typically be the greatest difference in physical maturity between boys and girls? (A) Preschool–grade 1 (B) Grades 2–4 (C) Grades 5–7 (D) Grades 10–12	(C) Grades 5–7	The best answer is Grades 5-7. Young adolescents exhibit considerable variability in the age at which they begin puberty, which occurs during these years. Girls typically begin to mature before boys.
A teacher might consider a fifth-grade student to be developing atypically if the student is unable to carry out which of the following cognitive processes? (A) Relating an action to a consequence (B) Explaining abstract concepts, such as honesty, faith, or patriotism (C) Developing strategies for improving learning (D) Offering multiple solutions to a problem	(A) Relating an action to a consequence	The best answer is relating an action to a consequence. This basic association, which forms the basis of behaviorist theories, is typically learned much earlier than fifth grade. The other choices are less typical of fifth graders. For additional information on cognitive development, review the Chapter 3 tutorial.
Which of the following social skills can a parent expect a child who is developing typically to learn in the preschool years? (A) Identifying the feelings of others (B) Taking responsibility for one’s mistakes (C) Recognizing what is fair and unfair (D) Negotiating for a privilege	(A) Identifying the feelings of others	The best answer is to identify the feelings of others - empathy and understanding of others' minds develop during these years. The other behaviors typically develop later than preschool. To begin your review of socio-emotional development, see the Chapter 3 tutorial.
According to the REA seven week study schedule, what should you do the 1st week?	Take the first exam on the CD-ROM as a diagnostic test. Your score will indicate your strengths and weaknesses. Make sure to take the test under simulated exam conditions. Review the explanations for the questions you answered incorrectly. Make sure that they meet the criteria detailed for you in the guide.
According to the REA seven week study schedule, what should you do the 2nd week?	Study REA's PLT Review. Highlight key terms and information. Take notes on the reviews as you work through them. Writing notes may aid in your retention of the information. You may also want to record a cassette to listen to as you drive.
According to the REA seven week study schedule, what should you do the 3rd and 4th weeks?	Review other references and sources. Make sure you also take time to review notes from your previous classes that might help you to prepare for the test. In addition to this guide, review the free ETS publication Tests-at-a-Glance. Use any other supplementary guides and materials that are available to you and that your counselor recommends.
According to the REA seven week study schedule, what should you do the 5th week?	Condense your notes and findings. You should develop a structured outline detailing specific facts. You may wish to use index cards or audio tapes to aid you memorizing important facts and concepts. Be sure to pay attention to the details on the essay.
According to the REA seven week study schedule, what should you do the 6th week?	Test yourself using the index cards. You may want to have a friend or colleague quiz you on key facts, theories, and items.
According to the REA seven week study schedule, what should you do the 7th week?	Study any areas you consider to be your weakness by using your study materials, references, and notes. You may want to retake the tests and practice the answers to the constructed-response questions again. The REA study guide provides extra answer sheets for your additional study and practice.
According to the REA seven week study schedule, what should you do by the end of the 7th week?	The night before you take the test, lay out all your materials (pens, pencils, wristwatch, identification, admission ticket, keys, etc.). Review your notes and directions for the test one last time. Take the test! Do your best! Afterwards, make notes about the multiple-choice questions you remember and the essay question.
David Elkind	personal fable and imaginary audience
Personal fable	The false belief that adolescents hold, "My life is different from everyone else's life; therefore, no one can understand how I feel or what I think. No one has ever felt or thought what I feel and think."
Imaginary audience	paranoia or the sense that everyone is scrutinizing their behavior and/or appearance for flaws. They feel pressured to wear the "right" clothes, and to look a certain way.
Cognition	the term commonly used to refer to all processes whereby knowledge is acquired; the term can be used to cover very basic perceptual processes, such as smell, touch, sound, and so forth, to very advanced operations, such as analysis, synthesis, and critical thinking.
What cognitive theorist died in 1980 and left a legacy of study surrounding the cognitive development of humans based on the notion that cognitive abilities ( or one's ability to think) are developed as individuals mature physiologically, and they have opportunities to interact with their environment.	Piaget
Piaget's described how individuals are innately endowed with certain cognitive predispositions and capabilities, and when they encounter a new or novel stimulus, they are brought into a state of...	...disequilibrium.
Piaget's terms for an individual's development physiologically, while interacting with their environment...	...equilibration of accommodation and assimilation cycles or processes.
Through what two processes do individuals come to know or understand that which is new?	...accommodation and assimilation.
Stage theory...	...Piaget predicted that certain behaviors and ways of thinking characterize individuals at different ages, and that certain characteristics will in predictable sequences and at certain times in the life of the individual.
What is the first stage in Piaget's cognitive development theory?	Sensorimotor (birth-2 yrs.)
What is the second stage in Piaget's cognitive development theory?	Preoperational (2-7 yrs.)	characterized by egocentrism, rigidity of thought, semilogical reasoning, and limited social cognition; some cognitive psychologists have observed that this stage seems to describe how individuals think more in terms if what they can't do than what they can do. This stage describes the way that children in the primary grades may be at this stage in their cognitive development.
What is the third stage in Piaget's cognitive development theory?	Concrete operations (7-11 yrs.)	Learners at this age begin to decenter. They are able to perform transformations, meaning that they can understand reversibility, inversion, reciprocity, and conservation. They can group items into categories. They can make inferences about reality and engage in inductive reasoning; they increase their quantitative skills, and they can manipulate symbols if they are given concrete example with which to work. This stage of cognitive development is the threshold to higher-level learning for students.
Kallison Jr. found that subject retention increased when lessons included...	...outlines at the beginning and a summary at the end.
If a teacher introduces a concept using examples and non-examples, and asks the class to provide a definition of the concept, the teacher is considered to be teaching...	...inductively.
A teacher says, "We have just finished reading Sense and Sensibility. Let's go through our notes and review the traits of each character in the novel." This is an example of...	...lesson-end review.
One benefit of using transition statements is that...	...students are oriented to the classroom pace.
How can computer software be used in the classroom?	...All of the above...to explore the Internet, to record computer skill growth, for the class newspaper.
The question "What is the name of Hamlet's father?" is...	...a low-order question that can be used to begin a discussion.
A student portfolio...	...contains documents and/or products to show student progress.
When assigning a specific writing exercise, it is best to...	...describe what should be included and how it will be graded.
Teachers can provide a positive testing environment by...	...providing a comfortable physical setting.
A systematic and continuing evaluation that can lead to changes in the curriculum or class design is known as...	...formative evaluation.
What is one way of incorporating non-participating students into a discussion?	...ask a student to respond to a previous student's statement.
Bulletin boards, letters home, and a test with point values given for questions are examples of...	...methods conveying performance standards.
A student is misbehaving in class, so the teacher institutes an exclusion time-out. What will happen?	...the student will observe the class, but without any reinforcement.
Controlled interruptions...	...can be positively directed with procedures already in place.
A school has a policy that the Internet will be used only for academic research and that students will not access adult-oriented/pornographic web sites while in the school computer lab. The computer teacher installs a web-filtering device that allows her to specify certain sites as being "off-limits" to users of the computers in the lab. This procedure helps safeguard...	...that students will not accidentally or intentionally access certain restricted web sites.
What is the most important factor in a student's academic success?	His or her attitudes and perceptions about learning
Student learning is most successful when...	...objectives are clearly outlined.
In a study, Fischer found that in an effective classroom, how many minutes per hour were spent on off-task behavior?	Four minutes
Teachers should present scientific laws...	...by analyzing causal conditions and their effects.
If only one computer is available to a class, students should be able to use the computer...	...individually or in small groups.
Written academic feedback is most productive when it...	...includes at least one positive remark.
Teachers convey emotion through...	...body language, eye contact, and verbal cues.
A student's permanent school record should be discussed with the...	...a student's parents/legal guardians, current teachers, and school administrators.
What is the narrative report approach?	Teachers provide parents with a written assessment of a student's progress.
When a teacher conducts an entry survey, he or she is...	...recording student background information.
Goals for individual student's...	...are developed after considering the student's history and motivation.
When assigning seat work exercises, an effective teacher always...	...provides corrective feedback.
When a teacher assigns an algebra class 20 problems to solve every day for two weeks as practice before the unit test, this is an example of...	...distributed practice.
A student making top grades in class has received a percentile score of 63 on a nationally standardized math test. The best explanation of the student's score is...	...a percentile score of 63 means that out of a group of 100 students, 37 would score higher and 62 would score lower, showing a big difference between the student's performance on the standardized test and in class.
When teaching cooperative learning skills, the teacher should...	...form groups of students with various backgrounds.
A teacher asks her class, "What do you think should happen if a student is caught cheating on a test?" By asking her students to participate in the process of establishing this rule, the teacher...	...uses consensus to help build classroom support for the rule about cheating.
A teacher begins a lesson with the following: "Today I want to go over yesterday's problems briefly before we introduce a few new algebraic laws. You will then have the opportunity to work with your partner on proving these laws." What is the teacher doing?	...Informing the students of what the objectives for the day will be
A teacher makes sure that the aisles between the desks in her high school classroom are at least three feet wide in order to...	...make sure that desks are accessible to all students in her class, including those who use crutches or wheelchairs.
A student expresses concern to the teacher about his grade on his last test. The student is accustomed to making A's and is displeased that he earned a C on his last test. One way for the teacher to help the student understand his grade is to...	...tell the student that the grades in class ranged from C to F, that the median grade was an F and the top grade was a C.
Which of the following contribute to the development of student responsibility?	Clear requirements, specific assignments, progress monitoring, and feedback
When trying to manage a classroom, the effective teacher...	...responds to deviant and compliant behavior.
Using the operant behavior model, what is negative reinforcement?	Removing something unpleasant after the asserted or expected behavior has occurred
While the teacher is reading aloud to the class, Caroline is telling jokes to get the students to laugh. According to Gordon's Teacher Effectiveness Training, who "owns" the problem?	The teacher
"Invitational learning" is the result of...	...a well-built classroom space.
When a teacher uses a student's response as a springboard to ask additional, more detailed question's, the teacher is...	...elaborating on students' answers.
As a teacher explains to his class the biological concept of feedback systems (loops) involving the control center (which receives information and processes information), the receptor (which sends information), and the effector (which receives information and produces a response), he finds that using a metaphor (a comparison) is helpful. He decides that the best metaphor is...	...a telephone system, a person making a call, and the phone.
What is one skill demonstrated by invitational teachers?	They are active listeners.
In classroom discussion, when should a teacher delay speaking?	After questions and after responses
"You seem to feel that you aren't doing well in this subject" is an example of a(n)...	...nondirective statement.
If the teacher asks a question, calls on a student, and the student doesn't immediately answer, what should the teacher do?	Say nothing, but give the student more time to think of an answer.
Which is an environmental factor in operant conditioning?	A sticker incentive
A female student comes up to a teacher and says that a relative has been touching her in a way that makes her feel uncomfortable. What should the teacher do?	Contact the school administration.
Public Law 94-142 requires that students with handicaps be placed in the least restrictive environment is defined as...	...all of the above...including, having the child participate in regular educational programming to the fullest extent possible; being individually determined; and enabling the child to make academic progress.
The most clearly identified factor for explaining learning differences between boys and girls is the differences in their...	...brain development.	All the factors are possible explanations for learning differences. However, technology allows scientists to document the differences in brain development more clearly, whereas socialization, personality traits, and cognitive ability ability are all affected by so many variables they cannot be called clearly identifiable.
All of the following factors contribute to a lack of school readiness in children from households at low socioeconomic levels EXCEPT...	...enrollment in out-of-home day care.	Children from families at lower socioeconomic levels tend to have limited resources, including access to nutrition and health care, and frequently have mothers who did not attend college. Day care especially, high-quality day care, tends to enhance school readiness for these children.
Which of the following abilities associated with maturity is most influential in learning?	Listening to the ideas of others.	The other answers: respecting the feelings of others, controlling strong emotions, and coping with change, are all important for social skills, but listening to the ideas of others is especially important for the development of critical thinking skills. Review the basics of cognitive development, and review the characteristics that are associated with maturity in children.
In which of the following situations might a student's culture or family structure affect his or her ability to learn?	A student from a large family who is asked to work independently because this situation reflects a mismatch between family and school expectations. That student may be at a disadvantage relative to peers who more frequently work independently. The other responses provide situations in which the student's family experiences and the class activities coincide.	You may want to review the definition for cultural mismatch, as well as the strategies that teachers may use to reduce it.
Which of the following conditions or behaviors are commonly associated with autism?	Repetitive activities and unresponsiveness to sensory stimuli.
A student who uses a wheelchair for mobility is eligible for special education...	...if the student's academic performance is affected as a result.	The best answer is that the student would be eligible for special education if his or her academic performance is somehow affected by the wheelchair or the condition that led to its use. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act grants educational rights for all people, from birth until age 21, regardless of cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities. To review this and other legislation related to students with disabilities, review chapter 4 of the ETS online tutorial.
A student is eligible for special education and related services under the exceptionality of visual impairment only if...	...the disability affects the student's academic performance.	Special services are provided only when educational access is limited.
A student with a disability in articulation and fluency may be eligible for special education and related services under...	...speech and language impairment.	Articulation and fluency both refer to speech production.
Which of the following best summarizes the intended benefit of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act for children with disabilities?	Removing barriers to education by ensuring free participation	Section 504 removes barriers to education by ensuring free participation in any program that Free participation receives federal money, such as public schools.
The legislation that dictates the width, placement, and threshold height of doors in a school building is...	...Americans with Disabilities Act
The 2004 amendment to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) changes the role of the regular education teacher in the individualized education program (IEP) process because it now states that regular education teachers...	...must provide data on both academic and functional performance for the student.	The best answer is that this amendment requires teachers to provide data on academic and functional performance for the student. A key change to this legislation is that the IEP for students 16 years or older must address transition services--defined as "a coordinated set of results-oriented transition activities for a student with a disability to become an independent adult"
A student with a disability who has been evaluated for a Section 504 accommodation plan and found to be ineligible should then be...	...kept in the original educational setting.	If the student is ineligible for accommodation, the student's disability does not interfere with his or her ability to learn.
Within the context of education, the principle difference between an accommodation and a modification is that an accommodation...	...changes how a student is taught and assessed, whereas a modification changes what a student is taught and assessed.	The best answer is that an accommodation changes how, whereas a modification changes what. In general, accommodations are changes to teaching--support and services. Modifications are changes to the curriculum itself (e.g., reduced expectations). Unfortunately, these terms are often used interchangeably, and thus incorrectly.
Which of the following practices would NOT be part of an active instructional learning environment for English language learners?	Activities that de-emphasize language use.	The best answer is that activities that de-emphasize language use would NOT be part of an instructional environment for English language learners--quite the opposite. Active learning tasks where students are participants are beneficial for studnets with limited English skills because they encourage language use, and routines provide structure and support. Content that reflects the culture of the students can increase motivation and interest in students learning English as well.
One of the strongest indicators of academic giftedness in a young child is...	...ability to read before entering school.	The best answer is that early ability to read is an indicator of academic giftedness. Memorization is not always related to academic giftedness, and the other choices are more related to social skills.
A physical education teacher encourages students to call out, "Good shot!" when a classmate scores during class basketball games. The teacher believes that the resulting recognition and encouragement strengthen students' concept of sportspersonship. This practice is supported by the motivational theory of...	...Edward Thorndike	Thorndike's theory of the Law of Effect specified that behavior followed by satisfying consequences would then be repeated. Although Skinner also focused research on consequences of behavior, his work on operant conditioning came later and was based in part on Thorndike's concept of association.
B. F. Skinner challenged the teaching method of his time-that is, motivating students to learn by punishing them for failure to learn-by asserting that the main lesson students learn from punishment is	...how to avoid further punishment.	The best answer is that students learn how to avoid further punishment. Punishment (i.e., presenting a negative stimulus) leads to a decline in behavior (e.g., they stop doing whatever they are doing that's leading to failure), not the substitution of a better behavior (i.e., motivation).
A preschool teacher has strict rules about classroom behavior and follows daily routines rigidly. She rewards students who conform and discourages those who do not. According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, this classroom atmosphere is likely to result in students who...	...lack initiative.	Erikson theorized that children at this age face a psychosocial conflict between initiative and guilt. This teacher is not allowing children to take control over their own behaviors, and her discouragement is likely to increase guilt.
A high school student who is performing poorly in his classes tells his guidance counselor that he has few friends and spends most of the school day alone. According to self-determination theory, which of the student's essential needs is not being met?	...relatedness.	The best answer is relatedness. Self-determination theorists propose that human beings have needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, which is a need to have close, affectionate relationships with others. Self-actualization is more frequently discussed in terms of Maslow's hierarchy of needs and the humanistic approach to motivation.
Which of the following theories of motivation explains why a student with excellent spelling skills explains a victory at the state spelling bee as "my lucky day"?	...attribution.	Attribution theorists look at learners' beliefs about why various things happen to them, such as why this student won the spelling bee. Note that it is more common for people to attribute failures to luck, rather than successes.
Students in Ms. Baker's class can expect a familiar routine every day. The classroom is orderly, and although Ms. Baker's rules are strict, they are known to all students and are enforced fairly and consistently. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Ms. Baker's classroom atmosphere is likely to meet students' need for	...safety.	Maslow's needs that refers to a need for order. Physiological needs are more basic and thus lower on Maslow's pyramid; belonging, esteem, and self-actualization needs are higher.
A teacher who wants to build students' intrinsic motivation would be most successful by doing all of the following EXCEPT	...linking students' performance to tangible reward.	Intrinsic motivation is not fostered through external rewards. When students make choices, complete challenging tasks, and receive meaningful recognition for good work, however, their intrinsic motivation for the tasks increases.
A student raised in a culture in which teachers are revered is having trouble adjusting to an alternative school setting where teachers are addressed by their first names and dress similarly to students. The most likely explanation for the student's difficulty is that the student	...is experiencing cognitive dissonance.	Cognitive dissonance is when a person holds two sets of beliefs that conflict, such as when the customs in a new situation conflict with current knowledge or beliefs. Transfer is a cognitive skill that the student likely possesses, and there's no reason to think the student can't learn to follow this custom (and thus isn't out of his or her zone of proximal development). Self-efficacy is unrelated to this scenario.
Which of the following best explains negative reinforcement?	Something bad is ended or taken away so that a behavior increases.	By definition, reinforcement leads to an increase in behavior, whereas punishment leads to a decrease in behavior. Negative reinforcement (and negative punishment) involves taking something away--usually something bad or unwanted (e.g., reducing the amount of seat-work to encourage quiet cooperative behavior). In contrast, positive reinforcement (and positive punishment) involves presenting something.
Which of the following routines would be most important for a teacher to address first when teaching class rules and procedures to students?	Responding to the teacher's attention signal	Especially with young students, teachers need to establish the attention signal right away. If students don't know when or where to pay attention or focus, they will miss the cues and directions that help them learn the other rules and procedures.
A teacher's first consideration when accessing and using student records should be...	...reviewing them in a timely manner.	All of the answers are important, but the best answer is for the first consideration is reviewing them in a timely manner, especially when the records reflect student achievement or important family or home considerations that may be affecting the student's work. Waiting too long can make the information obsolete.
A teacher can use spatial proximity to manage student behavior by...	...arranging the classroom spaces to allow easy physical access to every student.	Managing student behavior is easiest when a teacher has physical access to every student and thus can step in to stop misbehavior if necessary. Spatial proximity (i.e., remaining close to the action) can make it easier for a teacher to remain aware of what happens in the classroom and can make materials more easily available, but these things are less related to managing behavior than physical access. Establishing and enforcing rules is not related to spatial proximity.
Including students in setting rules and standards for classroom conduct has all of the following benefits EXCEPT	meeting students' physiological needs.	This form of democratic classroom management does not meet students' physiological needs, which Maslow's pyramid are needs for breathing, water, sleep, food, etc.
One of the strategies teachers can use to help students develop self-motivation is...	...helping students to see personal meaning in what they are learning.	The best answer is to help students see personal meaning in what they are learning. Competition and emphasizing grades typically encourage extrinsic rather than intrinsic motivation; setting goals that exceed one's potential can lead to failure and frustration rather than motivation.
Which of the following statements most accurately describes the educational rationale behind including students in instructional decision making?	Students are more motivated to learn and more engaged in their learning when they have input in what and how they learn.	The best motive for including students in decision making is that they are more motivated and more engaged when they have more input. The other choices are related to motivation but do not directly address the inclusion of students in instructional decision making.
Learning standards should be all of the following EXCEPT...	...focused on cognitive goals.	Although learning standards should be set to encourage cognitive growth, they are generally NOT focused on cognitive goals per se, but rather are focused on the application of cognitive, socioemotional, and physical skills to reach broad educational goals and are typically content specific, especially in the upper grades.
A teacher who subscribes to a cognitive view of learning is likely to design learning activities that have which of the following qualities? (I.) Students’ personal experiences will be viewed as an important part of learning. (II.) Students will be asked to find relationships between what they already know and what they are learning. (III.) Students will learn in a collaborative and supportive environment. (IV.) Students will learn by participating in real-life experiences. (V.) Students will be encouraged to change or adjust their ideas as they are exposed to new information.	I, II, and V Cognitive views of learning, especially those with a constructivist approach, assume that learners are active in their attempts to understand the world, that new understanding depends on prior learning (including, perhaps, their personal experiences), and that learning involves change in people's mental structures. Although learning activities that are based on cognitive theories MAY include collaborative environments or real-life experiences, these qualities are not indicative of cognitive theories but are more characteristic of social learning theory.
Which of the following elements are likely to be found in a lesson designed around the principles of behaviorism? (I.) introducing the lesson by giving students a sense of the “big picture” (II.) providing students with immediate feedback on correct or incorrect responses (III.) chunking learning into small segments and presenting them sequentially (IV.) allowing students to acquire information with minimal direction from the teacher (V.) assessing learning with tests that measure the exact skills indicated in the lesson objectives	II, III, and V Items I and IV are consistent with principles of constructivism, not behaviorism.
All of the following concepts are hallmarks of constructivism EXCEPT	Learning happens in an academic rather than an authentic context.	Educational psychologists view constructivism as a theory of learning suggesting that learners construct, rather than record, understanding of the world around them. Typically, constructivist approaches to education are student-directed, with the teacher as facilitator. Thus, according to this approach, learning happens most readily in an authentic context, NOT in an academic context.
According to social learning theory, which of the following teacher actions is most likely to result in students developing strong spelling skills?	modeling the use of spell checkers, dictionaries, and other sources and methods for verifying the correct spelling of words	Modeling lies at the core of social cognitive theory. Modeling can be direct (from live models), symbolic (from books, movies, and television), or synthesized (combining the acts of different models). It can cause new behaviors, facilitate existing behaviors, change inhibitions, and arouse emotions. Memorization and mnemonics are most characteristic of information processing; weekly testing is most characteristic of behaviorism.
During a post-observation conference, a principal tells a teacher that the material covered in the lesson was too detailed for students at that grade level. To avoid this situation in the future, the teacher should make sure to follow the curriculum's prescribed	scope	This teacher has gone beyond the scope of the material for the class. Scope generally refers to the specific content of the curriculum, and in this example, the content is too detailed. Sequence refers to the order in which material is taught. This is not the best answer because, although this material may be too detailed for this grade level, it is not clear that the teacher is presenting anything out of order or that this content would be presented at this level of detail at a later point in the curriculum or to a different grade.
A social studies teacher is planning a lesson on changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. Which of the following is a cognitive objective related to this lesson?	Describe the advancements made possible through the inventions of the Industrial Revolution.	Asking students to describe advancements resulting from the Industrial Revolution assesses what the students know and is thus a cognitive goal. Sketching blueprints and operating replicas are behavioral objectives-they are phrased in terms of the behaviors that students must demonstrate and focus on procedural skills. "Empathize" could also be considered a behavior. Note that in Bloom's Taxonomy (see Chapter 6), this objective would be considered socio-emotional.
Well-structured instructional objectives are essential to lesson planning because they provide the teacher with a framework for all of the following EXCEPT	differentiating instruction	General instructional objectives do not specify how to differentiate instruction for individual students' needs; rather, they address broadly what all students are expected to know. Remember that when instruction is differentiated, students may have different methods of achieving or demonstrating achievement of a goal, but the overall learning goal is typically the same for all students.
Applying Bloom's Taxonomy when formulating instructional objectives is supportive of learning because the instructional objectives will most likely	progress from simple to complex thinking	The cognitive objectives in Bloom's Taxonomy are, for the most part, organized hierarchically, with basic knowledge at the lower level and synthesis and evaluation reflecting more-complex thinking. Teachers who use the taxonomy as a framework, selecting higher-level objectives only after lower-level objectives are met, will best scaffold learning.
For an enrichment activity to serve its intended purpose, the activity should do all of the following EXCEPT	provide direct assistance with classroom work and test preparation	Enrichment need NOT include direct assistance, nor should it focus directly on classwork or test preparation. Enrichment activities should expand on students' learning, not simply repeat it. New methods and new concepts that relate to the original classroom work are typical of enrichment activities. Enrichment should also be enjoyable; students who need enrichment are typically fast and eager learners.
Ms. Fritts, a health education teacher, has been notified that a field trip to a nearby wellness center has been canceled. The health professionals whom the students were intended to interview are unable to come to the school; however, Ms. Fritts can still preserve the integrity of her original plan by	arranging for the health professionals to interact with the students via a live video-conference	Field trips and video conferencing achieve the same goals - getting students directly involved in face-to-face activities with professionals in the field. Assigning reports, telling students about the teacher's own visit to the center, and sending questions to the professionals do not have the same level of interactivity for the students as field trips and video conferencing do.
Which of the following teacher actions is most likely to support a positive learning experience for students when a guest speaker or performer is invited to give a presentation to the class?	preparing the students for the presentation by having them generate questions that they might ask the presenter	Although each of these responses has merit for making the guest speaker's presentation more effective, the best way to get students involved and prepared is to have them generate questions. This active strategy should increase motivation and attention and also help to encourage students' self-efficacy.
Thematic instruction is often referred to informally as "conceptual glue" because it	helps students build the mental connections necessary for recalling and integrating information	"Conceptual glue" is a metaphor for a system of knowledge organization that links and integrates related concepts. The "glue" is the connection among concepts. The other choices do not reflect this metaphor at all.
In a setting in which gifted students are integrated into the regular education classroom, the teacher's most appropriate method for meeting the needs of these students would be to	collaborate with a teacher of gifted students to create supplemental activities and assessments	Gifted students are often in need of enrichment, which should take the form of supplemental activities-activities in addition to regular class activities. The other choices (i.e., more work, separate instruction, and more difficult homework) do not reflect supplemental activities but instead are replacement activities. Collaborating with the teacher of gifted students should help to ensure that the supplemental activities are appropriate for the needs of the students.
To maximize the benefit of working with paraprofessionals in the classroom, the supervising teacher should do all of the following EXCEPT	maintain complete autonomy over any decision relating to students or instruction	A teacher who maintains complete autonomy over all decisions is not really "working with" the paraprofessional. Collaborative relationships among teachers and paraprofessionals respect the needs of all participants and encourage everyone to better their skills, learn new ones, and have some control over the processes by which they do so.
Which of the following sequences best represents the thought process of deductive reasoning?	Theory-hypothesis-observation-confirmation	Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing a logical inference about something that must be true, given other information that has already been presented as true. It typically begins with a theory or hypothesis, then involves data collection in some form (observation) and analysis (confirmation or disconfirmation of the hypothesis).
Which of the following types of thinking is most accurately identified as thought processes based on conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, and evaluating information?	Critical	This is the definition of critical thinking, the process of evaluating the accuracy and worth of information and lines of reasoning. Creative thinking is less analytical and more metaphorical or associative. Divergent thinking usually involves some creativity — the goal is to generate ideas. Convergent thinking involves drawing together and narrowing information to achieve a specific goal or solve a problem. Objective tests can be convergent but not critical.
Which of the following is best identified as a thought process that involves combining information to develop new understanding, concepts, or ideas?	Creative thinking	This is the definition of creative thinking. The stream of consciousness is one’s unedited thought processes — often during brainstorming, people report their streams of consciousness to share ideas. Lateral thinking is one form of creative thinking. Conjecture is not a form of reasoning but rather is a statement or proposition assumed to be true.
The stage in the memory process in which information is stored for approximately 20 seconds while the mind determines if the information needs to be retained is called	short-term memory.	The best answer is short-term memory. In the traditional memory model of Atkinson and Shiffrin, the short-term store functions as a storage place where information from the senses is either processed for long-term storage or lost altogether. More recent theories replace this construct with working memory, a processing-and-storage “space” in which information is rehearsed or encoded. Note that researchers think working memory capacity is limited to what can be processed in about 3 seconds.
A teacher-centered, skill-building instructional model in which the teacher provides the majority of the information is known as which type of teaching?	Direct	This is the definition of direct instruction, which typically includes a variety of techniques such as explanations, questions, and guided and independent practice. In Socratic and indirect instruction, the students provide much of the content and sometimes (with indirect instruction) the structure of a lesson. Integrated teaching usually refers to multidisciplinary content and structure, rather than teacher or student support.
A teacher is using didactic questioning to structure a class discussion. Which of the following question starters is most likely to elicit insightful or creative answers from students?	“What if”	The best answer is that a “what if” (i.e., hypothetical) question will encourage creative answers — but note that this would NOT be a didactic question. Didactic questions beginning with when, who, and under what circumstances are likely to lead to convergent thinking, whereas insightful or creative responses usually come from divergent thinking.
The cloze procedure is a valuable strategy for developing students’ reading skills because it allows students to use all of the following abilities EXCEPT	applying strategies for decoding the meanings of unfamiliar words.	The cloze procedure does not help students apply strategies for decoding the meanings of unfamiliar words. This technique involves using context to fill in missing words in a paragraph or story and thus requires all three of the other choices.
A teacher planning to use computer-mediated instruction for students’ independent study should look for computer software with all of the following capabilities EXCEPT	advancement to higher levels of difficulty at a rapid pace.	Computer-mediated software is not typically used to advance students to higher levels of difficulty at a rapid pace, although it is used for the other three purposes provided. Computer software does not yet have the ability to provide the individual scaffolding of higher-level thinking to encourage rapid advancement.
More and more schools are incorporating virtual learning experiences into their courses of study because of their potential to improve student achievement by	capitalizing on students’ natural use of electronic resources for finding and using information.	The best answer is that virtual learning experiences capitalize on what students are already doing; virtual learning experiences are often motivating for students who already look to the Internet and other new media for information. Ensuring that students receive uniform content does not affect individual student achievement. Simply reducing teacher-directed activities or encouraging exchange of resources will not necessarily improve student achievement — what’s important is how those resources and activities are used.
Explaining to students what they are going to learn and why that learning will be important to them is one of the elements of	scaffolding.	The best answer is scaffolding, which involves guided support for student learning. Explanations are not a form of modeling; students do not imitate the explanations. Explaining in advance will not help a teacher check for student understanding or determine standards of performance, although within the explanation the teacher may tell students what the standards are and how he or she will check for understanding.
When differentiating instruction, a teacher can reasonably differentiate which of the following classroom elements? (I) Summative evaluation (II)Process (III) Product (IV) Content (V) Learning environment	II, III, IV, and V only	A teacher can typically differentiate all but the first, summative evaluation. Differentiation refers to offering students multiple options for taking in information (e.g., offering more than one learning environment and method of instruction), making sense of the information (i.e., providing different types of content), and demonstrating knowledge (i.e., the product). Although the final products may be differentiated, summative evaluation itself refers more to the evaluation of learning, which should be tied to the educational objectives, regardless of process, product, content, and learning environment.
Which of the following criteria should a teacher use when grouping students homogeneously for remediation?	Same ability	The best answer is to group students of the same ability for remediation; students with different abilities will clearly need different (or no) remediation, and grouping students who are different on the stated criterion is not homogeneous grouping, which involves grouping together students who are the same on that criterion. Students of the same gender or same age may or may not need the same type of remediation.
The main advantage of putting students into cooperative learning groups is that the teacher can	exert more control over the group process.	The best answer is that by placing students in cooperative groups, the teacher exerts control over the group process; although cooperative learning does place some responsibility for learning with the students, that’s not the main advantage of this grouping method. Grouping for the most part involves cooperation among students, not isolation of any specific students, and tasks that require critical thinking can be assigned for any group or to the class as a whole.
During which step in the instructional process does a teacher question students and adjust instruction based on the feedback?	Checking for understanding	Adjusting instruction based on feedback results from checking for understanding — that’s where the teacher receives direct and immediate feedback as to the success of his or her teaching methods. Stating objectives occurs before a teacher questions students. Guided and independent practice don’t usually involve questioning and revision of instruction and thus don’t in and of themselves provide feedback.
Which of the following most accurately characterizes a teachable moment?	Briefly digressing from the planned lesson to explain a concept or event that has captured students’ collective interest	Teachable moments refer to unique opportunities in which a student is prepared to learn something new or an interest is sparked that leads to a diversion from the planned lesson in favor of additional information on this new topic. Engaging attention, determining content, and providing opportunities are not spontaneous; they are planned and controlled by the teacher in advance and thus are not considered teachable moments.
A teacher allows an appropriate amount of wait time before soliciting responses from students. This is likely to increase the effectiveness of class discussion because	more students will have the opportunity to think about a response.	The best answer is that wait time allows more students to think about a response. More students may be likely to participate in the general discussion if they feel comfortable and confident in their responses. It is also true that the level of the discussion may rise if students think a bit longer rather than responding right away.
A student has provided an incomplete response to a question posed during a class discussion. Which of the following is the most reasonable response by the teacher?	Asking a follow-up question that cues the student to provide the missing information	The best answer is to ask a follow-up question that cues the student.; The student may know the information but need prompting to produce it. Calling on another student and treating the response as an error by “correcting” it immediately do not allow the student to construct a better response and are not likely to encourage accommodation or restructuring of misinformation. Moving on to another question does not encourage learning this concept for this student or the others in the class.
In order for students to participate actively in class discussions, they must feel intellectually safe in the classroom. The openness of a classroom environment is primarily affected by how the teacher	responds to incorrect responses from students.	The best answer is that openness depends on how the teacher responds to incorrect responses. The physical arrangement of the classroom can affect discussion to some extent, but not as much as the teacher’s behavior. Most teachers do not develop social relationships with students, as they may cross important boundaries, and feelings of intellectual safety are only slightly, if at all, affected by the teacher’s assignment of students in groups.
A teacher observes that several students are reluctant to ask questions during class discussions yet ask questions of individual students after class discussions end. To encourage these students to become more comfortable voicing their lack of understanding, the teacher could	designate a place, such as a bulletin board, for students to post their questions rather than ask them aloud.	The best answer is to designate a place for students to post their questions. Calling on reluctant students is not likely to make them comfortable and may actually intimidate them further. Group work can have some advantages in making students more comfortable with each other, but in this case the students are already asking questions of their peers. Allowing students to post questions can bring the teacher into the discussion in a nonthreatening way.
A teacher notices that her students do not seem interested in the unit she is teaching on geology. She is surprised by their indifference given their previous interest in fossils. How could the teacher best motivate students to learn the new material?	Ask questions that help students link their interest in fossils to the study of geology.	The best answer is to ask questions to help students link their interest in fossils to the study of geology. Reviewing the unit on fossils without linking it to the new unit on geology would not help motivate the students to study the new information. Allowing students to select topics and inviting a geologist to talk are good strategies to increase motivation in general, but the teacher would do better by capitalizing on an interest that the students have already shared.
A high school offers a semester-length elective course on economics. When the new class of students arrives in the middle of the year, the teacher begins by discussing current headline events related to the U.S. financial system. The most likely reason for this activity at this stage of instruction is to	determine students’ prior knowledge of economics.	The discussion may establish rapport and motivate students’ interest, but the best answer is that the teacher, at the start of the class, is attempting to determine students’ prior knowledge. The discussion — on this general topic and placed at the start of the term — is not likely to help the teacher gauge ability levels of individual students.
Mr. Karloff needs to determine if his sixth-grade class is ready to move on to another area of his planned lesson for the day. If he wants to check his students’ levels of understanding by asking questions, he should	wait 5 seconds after asking the questions to see how many students are ready to answer.	The best answer is to wait 5 seconds to see how many students are ready to answer. Calling on students who raise their hands or a subset of students will not tell him enough about all of the students in his class. Increasing wait time will allow students who are slower or more reluctant time to think of an answer. Providing answers himself does not help him check the students’ level of understanding.
Students in a high school English class are reading the novel The Scarlet Letter. Instead of questioning students on the events in each chapter, the teacher assigns students an open-ended writing prompt that requires them to take a position on an issue related to that chapter and defend their view. The teacher is most likely using this method as a means to	stimulate students’ creative and critical thinking.	The best answer is that the teacher is trying to stimulate creative and critical thinking. Open-ended prompts allow for higher levels of thinking than asking questions on events of each chapter (although asking this type of low-level question is a better way for the teacher to determine the students’ reading level). Assessments of this sort may create a starting point for discussion and have the advantage of forcing all students to take a position prior to the discussion, but this isn’t the best choice.
Students in a middle school social studies class have just read silently the chapter in their text on ancient Egypt. Their teacher then asks them to complete a worksheet with questions on the dates of specific dynasties, the primary deities, and the steps involved in the process of mummification. Which level of Bloom’s taxonomy is targeted by these types of questions?	Knowledge	The best answer is knowledge, which involves recalling information. Synthesis requires students to organize information into a coherent goal. Comprehension refers to understanding the meaning, and analysis involves understanding a concept by breaking it into its component parts. Knowledge (recall) is the lowest level in Bloom’s taxonomy, which is presented in greater detail in Chapter 6 of this tutorial.
A teacher who frequently uses discussion as an instructional strategy observes that the class tends to lose focus during discussion, drifting off topic frequently. The teacher can best encourage students to stay focused on the topic of the discussion by	giving students the discussion questions in advance so they can sketch out their answers.	The best answer is to give students discussion questions in advance. Small groups and student facilitators both can have the opposite effect, as students may need more adult scaffolding to stay on task. Relying on lower-level questions will not generate much discussion, as those tend to have objective answers; discussion is better served with open-ended questions that allow for critical thinking and reflection.
Ms. Petra is presenting a lesson on the water cycle and has given each student a diagram to label. As she teaches, she moves toward Tyler, who she notices is inattentive. Without interrupting instruction, she points to the place on Tyler’s diagram where he should be writing a label. This is an example of	nonverbal communication.	The best answer is that this is nonverbal communication. She is focusing his attention, not checking for understanding. Differentiation of instruction refers to the idea that to accommodate student diversity, teachers should plan instruction that matches students with tasks best suited to their needs and in some cases allows students to make choices for their learning (see Chapter 7 of this tutorial for more information).
A preschool teacher observes that, generally speaking, the girls in the class follow instructions more readily, volunteer to help the teacher more frequently, and react more emotionally to criticism than do the boys in the class. These differences in behavior are most accurately described as a result of	sex-role socialization.	The best answer is that this behavior most likely results from sex-role socialization — the students have learned how the culture expects boys and girls to behave and thus engage in those behaviors. They may behave according to stereotypes, but the reason for the behavior isn’t the stereotypes; it’s the socialization toward them. Sexual orientation is a term for sexual/romantic interest, and gender bias typically refers to discrimination or separation of students (or expectations for each) based on their genders.
A teacher showing the class a videotape or DVD can enhance its value as an instructional tool by doing all of the following EXCEPT	asking students to take notes on the information during the showing.	The best answer is that the value of showing a DVD or video in class is not enhanced when students take notes. The other choices all include elements of teacher scaffolding, all of which enhance the educational value of this form of media presentation.
Teaching students the skill of active listening results in more meaningful instruction because	lecture and other methods of instruction where students function as receivers of information remain predominant in U.S. schools.	The best answer is that teaching active listening skills takes students out of their more typical role as information-receivers. Research does not suggest that most students are auditory learners. It may be that teacher interest and engagement in learning help students feel connected and stay on task, but these answers don’t focus directly on active listening.
Before presenting a brief lecture on the formation of stars, a science teacher tells students that afterward she will be asking them to answer specific questions about the material. This practice is most likely intended to	develop and reinforce active listening skills.	The best answer is that the teacher is trying to develop and reinforce active listening skills by reminding students that they will be held responsible for the information. Students may be more willing to participate in discussion after listening actively (versus passively), but that’s a side effect of the teacher’s instructions, not her goal. The other choices are not directly related to this practice.
Which of the following types of assessments best serves the purpose of making judgments about the value of an activity at the end of its implementation?	Summative	Summative assessment is conducted after instruction to assess students’ final achievement. Formative assessment is conducted during implementation, often to evaluate the need for change. Diagnostic assessment provides information about student’s knowledge before implementation. Performance assessment refers to the type of activity involved—students are evaluated based on their performance on a task—and can be used for any of the purposes identified here.
A teacher should view assessment as which of the following elements of the educational process?	The criterion for determining whether an instructional goal has been achieved	Assessment is a process by which teachers can evaluate student learning and achievement, the success of a lesson, or other elements of classroom experience.
* Discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the invention and suggests ways in which it could be improved. Discusses the strengths or weaknesses of the invention but not both. May include how it could be improved. * Does not discuss the strengths or the weaknesses of the invention. May include how it could be improved. A teacher is developing the rubric above to evaluate students' essays on 20th-century inventions. Which of the following statements is most appropriate for a three-star rating?	Discusses one strength and one weakness of the invention. Includes one suggestion of how to improve it.	"Discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the invention thoroughly and insightfully..." is too similar to the four-star rating. "Discusses either one strength or one weakness of the invention. Does not include any ways in which it could be improved" is too similar to the two-star rating. "Discusses the invention thoroughly but not in terms of strengths and weaknesses" is too similar to the one-star rating. In a rubric, each rating response should be clearly distinct from the others and should include all the relevant evaluation criteria (in this case, strengths, weaknesses, suggestions for improvements).
If used correctly, student self-assessment is most valuable to educators because it	provides information on students' strengths and weaknesses that is not revealed through other means	Students in a nonthreatening environment, which can be created through self-assessment, are honest about their abilities, and thus self-assessment can provide information that educators might not otherwise have. Although the other responses may be benefits of student self-assessment, only the correct response focuses on the ultimate goal of assessment: accurate evaluation of students' achievement.
Although peer evaluation in the classroom is a meaningful method for students to gain feedback on their work, it is crucial that before allowing students to assess one another's work, the teacher must first	provide specific criteria for peers to consider in others' work.	Students, like teachers, need to be clear on the evaluation criteria before beginning any assessment—this ensures reliability and some objectivity. They do not necessarily need to help develop the rubric, although doing so may help them understand it better. Students also do not necessarily need to know theories about the purposes and benefits of peer assessment to use it meaningfully. Finally, there's no requirement that assignments that are peer evaluated be part of the final grade; they need not even be summative.
All of the following are benefits of using portfolios to assess student achievement EXCEPT that portfolios	use a standardized evaluative criterion, so results are comparable among students.	Portfolios are not standardized-the flexibility of these broad, in-depth alternative measures of student progress is perhaps their greatest benefit, as long as they can be evaluated fairly.
The element that distinguishes selected response from other assessment models is that	there are right and wrong answers that can be impartially scored.	Well-constructed selected-response tests (such as multiple choice) have clear correct and incorrect answers that can be easily identified by students with the proper knowledge base. Typically, they test recognition memory rather than recall and product more than process, although good selected-response tests can address some procedural knowledge and also higher-level learning such as critical thinking.
All of the following characteristics are typical of a performance-based assessment EXCEPT	it is designed to determine if students have acquired specific content knowledge.	Performance-based assessments tend to focus on procedural knowledge, not specific content knowledge. The other answers are characteristic of this type of assessment.
Critics of standardized testing caution against its use as the primary measure of student achievement and teacher accountability because this results in school districts'	using the test content to dictate curriculum and instructional practice.	Although curriculum, practice, and assessment should be linked, allowing standardized test content to dictate instructional practices (aka "teaching to the test") does not result in generalized learning. Some researchers do suggest that the "achievement gap" appears greatest when standardized tests are used for assessment, and using only student test scores is a very narrow (and probably unfair) way to assess teaching skill, but these concerns are not as critical as losing sight of instructional goals and best practices.
The primary difference between an achievement test and an ability test or an aptitude test is that an achievement test measures the extent to which a student can	perform certain skills after instruction or training.	Both achievement and aptitude tests can measure ability to reason, solve problems, and respond to people, things, and events. However, only an achievement test measures performance after instruction, and ability tests, not achievement tests, typically measure the extent to which a student can develop proficiency in a particular area.
A teacher measures student performance on a test against benchmarks outlined in the state's core curriculum standards. This is an example of which type of scoring?	Criterion referenced	Criterion-referenced scores indicate how well an individual met specific standards, such as percentage of correct responses or "advanced" responses on a rubric. State standards are criteria used in criterion-referenced scoring. Norm-referenced scores reflect an individual's performance in comparison to other test takers, not against the benchmarks themselves. Holistic scoring involves summarizing a student's performance on an assessment with a single score reflecting an overall impression, whereas analytic scoring provides subscores or individual scores for various parts of the assessment. Note that analytic and holistic scoring systems can be criterion referenced or norm referenced, depending on whether they are reported according to benchmarks/criteria or according to a comparison with others' performance.
The validity of a test can generally be increased by including test items that	measure only the content that has been taught.	Validity refers to the extent to which an assessment instrument actually measures what it is intended to measure-typically, the content that has been taught. The incorrect responses do not address validity.
The main distinction between an analytical rubric and a holistic rubric is that an analytical rubric	measures performance on each element of the assessment, whereas a holistic rubric measures performance on the assessment as a single entity.	The correct answer provides general definitions for holistic and analytic assessments. Holistic rubrics can use numerical values or describing terms and can be used for measuring tasks in any discipline. Additionally, both types of rubrics can be created entirely by the teacher or in cooperation with students or colleagues.
In a test score expressed as a grade-equivalent score, there are two numerals separated by a decimal point (i.e., 5.4). In the score these two numerals represent what separate pieces of information?	Grade-level year and month	Grade-equivalent scores show grade-level year (e.g., fifth grade) before the decimal and month into school (e.g., assuming school starts in September, the 4 refers to December). This score reflects an estimate of the test performance of the average student in that grade at that particular time. Thus a score of 5.4 indicates that an average fifth grader would receive this score in December of the fifth-grade school year.
To be ethically responsible, a teacher should include which of the following information when explaining what assessment data indicate about a student's abilities, aptitude, or achievement?	The limitations of the assessment method	Evaluations should be fair and unbiased, and thus ethics requires that the teacher present information about the limits of the assessment method. It is typically good practice to present information about the conditions under which it was given, although it's not unethical to omit that information (i.e., the teacher has no obligation to present this information). Nor is it unethical to omit information about the performance of the student's peers or the role of assessment in the learning process, although these pieces of information can be useful for parents or others trying to interpret the results.
Professional organizations for educators serve all of the following purposes EXCEPT	placing individual members in employment positions.	Professional organizations do not generally handle job placement, although they frequently maintain lists of open positions and may have an online resume bank. Rather, professional organizations provide networking opportunities, resources and collegial support, and professional recognition.
The unique benefit of using a learning community to address an educational problem is that the collaborative approach of the learning community	introduces different perspectives on both the problem and the solution.	Learning communities are marked by collaboration, and collaboration of any sort almost always introduces diversity of perspective; it is rare that a learning community would include only participants with similar interests. Learning communities need not be formal, and although they frequently provide guidelines for communication, that is not a unique benefit of this type of organization.
Mentoring programs that match new teachers with experienced teachers promote increased student achievement because they	promote collaboration among teachers.	Education professionals believe strongly that collaboration among teachers is associated with student achievement. Mentoring is one important way to build collaborative relationships. The other answers provide some benefits of mentoring, but they do not address the issue of student achievement.
New teachers frequently build portfolios containing their comments about lessons, learning resources, and instructional strategies. This is an example of reflective practice because the teachers	use the portfolio to examine the effectiveness of their instruction.	Reflection occurs as teachers evaluate the materials in their portfolios to identify strengths, weaknesses, and developmental trends. Certainly, they also reflect on their practice as they select items to include in the portfolio, but generally even the selection process involves an evaluation of how any particular item provides evidence for effectiveness of instruction. It's this evaluative nature that defines reflective practice.
Ms. Rosario, a new teacher, is planning to keep a reflective journal during her first year of teaching high school biology. In order to qualify as a reflective journal, her journal must contain	her feelings and thoughts about her teaching.	Reflection is characterized as thinking about one's own feelings and thoughts. A reflective journal of teaching practices would likely include lesson plans, instructional materials, research, or a record of events, but simply documenting those things in writing is not reflection. A true reflective journal would include not only these items but also Ms. Rosario's thoughts and feelings about them (e.g., success or failure of particular lesson plans, materials needed next time a particular lesson is taught).
Mr. Delgado decides to conduct a critical incident analysis after a student throws a temper tantrum and disrupts the class. He reviews a list of questions designed to guide critical analysis. Which of the following questions is likely help Mr. Delgado use the incident to guide future classroom management?	What could I do differently if faced with this incident again?	This disruptive tantrum is considered a critical incident—it is an event that needs to be addressed effectively and immediately, and similar events need to be prevented. Critical incident analysis typically begins with an objective description of what happened and ends with reflection on what can be done differently in the future. Thinking about possible outcomes or about one's own expectations or biases may be part of that reflective process, and professional development may be an outcome of that reflection.
A group of teachers is assigned to observe one another's teaching, participate in group discussions, and provide constructive feedback to one another. This arrangement is known as	peer coaching.	This statement offers a definition of peer coaching. Team teaching does not take this form of group evaluation but rather involves shared responsibilities for planning and instruction. Mentoring describes the work of an experienced teacher with a novice teacher. Peer evaluation may or may not be constructive and may or may not be given directly and only to the teacher who is being observed.
Which of the following theorists promoted the value of the public education system in advancing the ideals of citizenship and democracy?	Dewey	Dewey is held as the central figure in educational theory to support ideas that education systems should aim to produce an intelligent electorate. Piaget is best known for his stage theory of cognitive development, Vygotsky for his integration of social and cognitive development. Bloom is best known for his taxonomy of learning and educational objectives.
When working with a paraeducator in the classroom, a teacher should use the paraeducator's level of experience to determine the	amount of supervision provided for the paraeducator.	The classroom teacher generally does not make administrative decisions regarding number of hours or number of students assigned to a paraeducator. However, the classroom teacher does have discretion to determine amount of supervision necessary, as the teacher is best able to observe what the paraeducator needs and to adjust that supervision as needed to ensure an optimal experience for everyone.
A high school principal receives a complaint from a parent because students have received approval to add a religious study group to the roster of the school's extracurricular activities. The principal could appropriately respond by explaining that the school is within its rights to add the club because of protections afforded by	the Equal Access Act of 1984.	The Equal Access Act guarantees the right for religious-affiliated student groups to meet as part of a formal extracurricular activity, as long as the group does not "materially and substantially interfere with the orderly conduct of educational activities within the school." These groups do not suggest that a specific religion is endorsed by the school, and they must be afforded the same treatment as any other club or extracurricular group. The other acts included here do not address this question.
The Supreme Court has limited the Fourth Amendment rights of students in public schools by allowing school officials to search a student's belongings without a court-issued warrant as long as	there is probable cause based on reason and common sense.	The U.S. Supreme Court ruled, in New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985), that school officials could search if they had "reasonable cause or individualized suspicion" that the search would yield evidence of a violation of law or school rules. Additionally, the ruling specified that the scope of the search could not be "excessively intrusive." The other factors noted here (i.e., disciplinary record, suspicious behavior, and parental notification) were not part of the decision. Later federal and state rulings have provided clarifications and exceptions.
Which of the following programs is a direct result of legislation mandating that schools receiving federal funds provide equal educational opportunities to students regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, or ability?	Bilingual education	The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 allowed schools to establish educational programs for students with limited English-speaking ability. The Equal Educational Opportunities Act (EEOA) followed in 1974, prohibiting discrimination and requiring students' equal participation. As a result of these acts, schools must provide a means to teach English Language Learners in both their native language and in English. The other alternatives are not addressed in the EEOA.
Tenure is a form of job security whose primary purpose is to protect a teacher from dismissal based on	personal beliefs.	Tenure protects teachers' rights to free speech; tenured teachers cannot be fired simply because of their personal beliefs, personality, or matters of style. However, tenure does not protect teachers from dismissal due to declining enrollments or financial cutbacks. Nor does tenure protect a teacher who is insubordinate, who fails to maintain professional standards, or who violates standards of morality or competence.
A fifth-grade student who has been warned repeatedly about being aggressive toward other classmates pushes a classmate down during recess and causes an injury. As a consequence, the student receives corporal punishment from the teacher. Which of the following would guarantee that the teacher is within her rights to administer this type of punishment?	The local school board allows corporal punishment.	Corporal punishment in schools isn't addressed in federal law. Policies of discipline are determined by school boards, so even if a state permits corporal punishment, a school board may elect to prohibit it. Some school boards may require parental permission or other staff members to be present, but these conditions, by themselves, do not guarantee that a teacher is within his or her rights.
A social studies teacher videotapes a presidential debate from a public television station to show to his students. According to U.S. copyright law, the teacher	may retain the tape indefinitely.	Copyright laws and the fair use doctrine address reproduction of copyrighted materials. A presidential debate is considered public domain and can therefore be used repeatedly and without permission. However, the guidelines for use of other television programs are more complex; in most cases, they cannot be showed repeatedly over an indefinite period without permission from the copyright holder. All teachers should regularly review copyright law, particularly for classroom copying of printed material and showing audiovisual material.
John Dewey:	(1859-1952) Influenced by G. Stanley Hall (a prominent American experimental psychologist) and psychologist) and George Sylvester Morris (a Hegelian philosopher), focused his philosophical interests on “theory of inquiry” or “the theory of knowledge.” His educational philosophy called instrumentalism, or pragmatism de-emphasizes rote learning and dogmatic instruction; he emphasized learning by doing (Price 50).
Educational Scaffolding:	Provides guidance to students as they conduct research, but the technique does not limit the student in the investigation. Ideally, educational scaffolding will: provide direction, clarify purpose, keep students on task, offer the assessment (the rubric) to clarify expectations, supply some suggestions for sources, make available a lesson/activity without problems because the teacher has prepared well, be an efficient instructional technique, generate thinking (Price 50-1).

Share This Flashcard Set

Set the Language

Praxis 2 Plt Grades 7-12

Add to Folders

Upgrade to Cram Premium

Card Range To Study

528 Cards in this Set