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51 Cards in this Set
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Structurationism |
- Individuals make rational decisions that form structures whichthen might play a role on their further behavior - Individuals define the very features within structures that will then play a role in theirdecisions (ex: Game Theory/Prisoner's Dilemma) - Individuals seldom choose the option which will turn out to be the most benefitial forboth |
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Gramsci (Marxist scholar): Why a socio-cultural revolution has not occurred in a capitalistsociety? |
- Notion of hegemony = values from the dominant class are invisibly getting diffused invarious aspects of society as a whole - Counter hegemony as his solution |
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Ingleheart, World Value Survey |
- Attempts to understand political culture among different generations - Post-materialism: Defined by generations who did not experience any hardships orsecurity threats - Materialist generations (ex: those who grew up during wars) were likely to vote forparties who gave them a sense of security and provided them with their basic needs - Current pattern: shift from some post-materialism causes to material ones (ex:environmental policies) |
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Putnam, Social Capital |
- Societies with high levels of this would have a more intenseparticipation in politics - Feelings of trust and reciprocity among social circles reflect on levels of politicalparticipation |
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Liberalism |
- John Locke and Adam Smith - Common point: humans are rational beings able of self-governance - Individuals are the most important agents in society, not the state - Individuals are born on equal terms, but as they grow they start to play different roles insociety based on their free will; such positions are mutually complimentary (if everythingwas equal and there is no division of labor, there would be no balance or progress) - The state should not interfere in the economy and other structures of society (ex: it shouldnot regulate wages) |
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John Locke |
- Liberalist thinker - The state is created by the individual in order to serve themselves - Belief in progress: change is good and desirable; individuals have the reason and powerto move forward - States must provide protection to our natural rights (to life, property, etc.) but nomore than that - State of nature = men are equally free and rational; we have morals and are aware thatothers also have rights - Natural rights = to life, property, and liberty In case of conflict, people would come together and give some of their rights to acentralized authority - This authority (unlike the Leviathan) would be ruling as long as people wish him to |
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Adam Smith |
- Liberalist thinker - Capitalism as the economic system and liberalism as the political system complimenteach other - We engage in economic exchanges to satisfy our own needs and maximize their benefits |
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Conservatism |
- Edmund Burke: critic of the French Revolution, claimed that it compromised the orderand stability of society - Humans are imperfect and not actually rational: we need an outside measure to bringorder and stability into our lives - Rules and traditions that have proved to be benefitial should be kept; change is notdesired as is is threatening - We're not all equal by birth, thus our capacities are totally different - Different roles should be given according to people's abilities |
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Fascism |
- Disregards individuals, as the state is above everything - Emerged in the period between the World Wars (Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in Germany) - Organic society: the society is like a body with different organs working together - Against all ideas from the Enlightenment (freedom, individualism, democracy) - Parallel to nationalist policies and ideas - Totalitarian regime = the state interferes in every aspect of the lives of its people - No separation between private and public life - Emphasis on war and expansionism |
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Socialism |
Marx - key scholar - Underlining of fairness and equality - Industrial Revolution - process of mass production and changes in the nature of labor andsocial structures - No labor rules, unequal distribution of wealth, no welfare state = wild stage of capitalism - Bolshevik Revolution: interpretation of socialism, focused on force and collectivism - Social Democracy: more reformative and mild branch |
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Bernstein, socialist scholar |
- It's possible to make gradual changes by improving labor conditions and workingwithin the system until it gets transformed and shaped according to people's needs - Establishment of welfare state in some European nations - Each person has the right to have a fair distribution - The state's role is to redistribute resources to create a satisfactory condition for adignified life |
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Marx, Notion of Alienation |
- Relates to the idea of unfairness in capitalism - People who are actually engaged in production are completely separated from the endproduct - Surplus value on what workers earn = source of wealth of capitalist production owners - We're all productive beings and once we are detached from that process, we becomealienated and exploited |
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Plato |
- Context: the Athenian polis, direct democracy - "The Republic": describes how a just polis should be - Criticizes the Athenian system - Uses the Socratic dialog (questioning everything) - Virtue: shaped by social conventions and requires objectivity - The just polis would be divided according to the soul type of its individuals (rulers,soldiers, laborers) - A fair and functional labor division would let individuals do what they are best at - Rulers should be highly educated so their choices will be rational and virtuous (thePhilosopher King idea) - Both guardians and rulers should be detached from personal relations and should give upprivate property so they do not become selfish - Strict censorship on art and education should be state controlled |
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Hobbes |
- Context: Civil war in England and political turmoil - State of nature for all humans - No centralized authority - Everyone has the right to think and pursue what they believe is good for them and others - Continuous conflict among individuals due to competition, sometimes threatening theoverall safety - People come together and transfer their state of nature rights to a sovereign (Leviathan)who will grant their safety and order - There would be a contract between the people and the Leviathan: people's rights aregiven in exchange for security, while the sovereign should not be question but shouldfulfill his part of the deal |
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Rousseau |
- Criticizes the state of nature coined by Locke and Hobbes - Human beings are noble savages: we're neither good or bad, we're not motivated only bysurvival instincts and we don't aim at inflicting pain upon others - When tools and ways of production become developed enough, skill differences amongpeople stand out = division of labor - Creation of inequalities lead to the distribution of power: people figure out they need acentral authority to protect their rights - Along with the sovereign, people would be engaged in an on-going process of collectivedecision-making |
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Berlin, Two Concepts of Freedom |
Both concepts of liberty represent valid human ideals, and that both forms of liberty are necessary in any free and civilised society 1) Negative freedom comes from state interference/external factors - Represents a different, and sometimes contradictory,understanding of the concept of liberty, which needs to be carefully examined - "Liberty in the negative sense involves an answer to the question: 'What is thearea within which the subject — a person or group of persons — is or should beleft to do or be what he is able to do or be, without interference by otherpersons'. 2) Positive freedom is the one that individuals have to realize their own potentials and the stateshould help them to do so - Entails self-mastery, and includes one's having a role in choosing who governs the society of which one is a part - Traces positive liberty from Aristotle's definition of citizenship, which is historically derived from the social role of the freemen of classical Athens |
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The Politics of Happiness, David Wearing |
- Should governments concentrate on economic growth as an end in itself orshould it also consider whether it is making people happier? - Although the majority of people within western societies have become richer overtime, we haven’t become any happier - Self-interest often collides with the common interest; the accentuation of this isbound to have a corrosive effect on society - British politics are trying to move towards policies promoting the well-being of itscitizens, however that is still hasn't been accomplished fully due to materialismand self-interest of manager-politicians responsible for such policies |
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Andrew Heywood, Dialectical Materialism |
- Derived from the Marxism adopted by the Soviets:Political ideas can only be understood in the light of the economic or classinterests of those who express them - Ideas have a ‘material basis’, they have nomeaning or significance on their own |
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Definitions of Ideology |
- A political belief system - An action-orientated set of political ideas - The ideas of the ruling class - The world-view of a particular social class or social group. - Political ideas that embody or articulate class or social interests. - Ideas that propagate false consciousness amongst the exploited or oppressed. - Ideas that situate the individual within a social context and generate a sense ofcollective belonging. - An officially sanctioned set of ideas used to legitimize a political system or regime. - An all-embracing political doctrine that claims a monopoly of truth. - An abstract and highly systematic set of political ideas |
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Rawls, Two principles of justice |
1) Each person has the same indefeasible claim to a fully adequatescheme of equal basic liberties, which scheme is compatible with the same scheme ofliberties for all 2) Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions: a. They are to be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fairequality of opportunity; b. They are to be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (thedifference principle) |
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Rawls, Primary Goods |
- The basic rights and liberties; - Freedom of movement, and free choice among a wide range of occupations; - The powers of offices and positions of responsibility; - Income and wealth; - The social bases of self-respect: the recognition by social institutions that givescitizens a sense of self-worth and the confidence to carry out their plans |
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Athenian Democracy (Classic Democratic Model) |
1) Equality among citizens (but, not everyone was a citizen) 2) Liberty 3) Respect for law Direct form of democracy: being a citizen = subject of rules but also direct involvement in thecreation of laws and decision-making |
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Representative Democracy |
- Representation through elections: citizens participate by choosing who's going to bedirectly involved on their behalf - Order and stability without violating rights of individuals - Major rights: freedom of speech, association, movement and voting rights |
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Deliberative Democracy |
- How to ensure that all citizens will participate in the decision-making process? - How to ensure that they will deliberate on equal terms? - Decisions cannot be made without reasoned arguments that work in favor of the commongood - Habermas: There should be an insurance that all people are properly informed aboutwhat is being decided (if this isn’t equal for all, some people will be able to come up withmore reasoned arguments than others) |
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Clientelism |
Exchange of goods and services for political support, often involving animplicit or explicit quid-pro-quo |
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Corporatism |
- Interests of the industry are aggregated - Tripartite relationship: business groups + state + labor unions - In order for this to be functional those groups need to do what they are supposed to(organized interests instead of dispersed pluralism) |
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Nation-state |
- Unit of authority with a clear geographical border - Legitimized through recognition by the international community - Formal recognition = membership in the UN |
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Tyranny |
If only one rules and only one gets the benefits |
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Oligarchy |
If a few people rule and only them get benefits |
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Democracy |
If many are ruling and many benefit |
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Monarchy |
Single ruler but everyone benefits |
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Aristocracy |
Few rule, many benefit |
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Polity |
Many are ruling, all benefit |
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Legislature |
- Consists of the parliament - In a democratic framework: elected by public vote to form an assembly - Make laws for the general public - Act as deliberators: discuss about content of the laws and what should be the focus ofgovernance (how the legal mechanism should protect the general good) - Represent the public who elected them - Supervise the activities of the executive (checks and balances) - Different systems worldwide: a) Unicameral: single parliament responsible for all functions (ex: Turkey) b) Bicameral: occurs either in a federal state (ex: US) or in some unitary systems (ex: UK;House of Commons and House of Lords) |
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Parliamentary Executive |
- PM is chosen out of legislature and chooses members of the cabinet from legislature - Role of the president in this system is merely symbolic |
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Presidential System |
- Chief executive = president - President is elected through a separate election (it does not take place in the assembly) - Powers in senate and congress (legislative) check and balance the presidential power - Presidency is limited - Goes back to the idea of separation of powers (Montesquieu) |
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Hybrid System |
- President + PM (ex: France) - President is separately elected from the PM and the parliament - Power is shared - Semi-presidential: when the president has more power than the PM (France) - Semi-parliamentary: when the PM and the legislature have slightly more power - In France: PM and the president can be from different parties |
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Judiciary |
- Separate power in a democratic context - Might be entitled to interpret/implement legislation (US) or it might be responsible onlyfor implementation |
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Constitutions |
- Lay out framework in which state institutions are organized and how their relations and powers are to be established and connected to society as a whole - Reflect political culture of their fellow countries - Constitutionalism: link between written rights and their practice |
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Elazar, Different Types of Constitution |
1) Loose document laying down key elements in the system, open for interpretation by thejudiciary (US) 2) Strictly coded rules of conduct (FR) 3) Focus on individual rights (former colonies) 4) Ideology-based (USSR) 5) Religious-law based (Israel) |
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Catch-all Parties |
More relatable to the general public and presented trimmed versions of radical ideologies |
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Cartel Parties |
More professional and organized (ex: have their own PR andcampaign branches, more managerial approach) |
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Dominant Party System |
- Fair elections and competition between several parties; but, the sameparty is allowed to win the elections several times or to be part of a coalition - Successful because they might be associated with ahistorical/nationalistic aspect (ex: Congress Party in India, partly responsible for thecountry's success in becoming independent) - Criticism: when a single party becomes that dominant, it becomes more and moreassociated with the state as a whole |
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Two-Party Systems |
- Two major parties are the main competitors (ex: Republicans vs. Democrats) - Competition between both outshadows the other parties - 2010: coalition in the UK (Conservatives + Liberal Democrats) |
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Multi-Party Systems |
- Several parties in the elections; none is more dominant than the others - Coalitions are rather common - Differences can be mild (not a big ideological difference among parties) or radical(clashing ideologies threaten the efficiency of the coalition) (ex: Italy and Spain) |
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Interest Groups |
- Not the same as parties: the former does not aim at running forelections - United by common values and try to advance the agenda of their own members and thegovernment |
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Two Major Types of Electoral Systems |
1) Plurality/first past the post: from each electoral district, the candidate who gets the most voteswins a seat in the parliament (UK) 2) Proportional representation: tries to convert the number of votes to the number of seats in theparliament, seeking for giving a fairer chance to minority parties Threshold system (variation): attempts to control polarization; 3-5% level |
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Intellectual Property Rights |
- Patents, copyrights, licenses - TRIPS agreement, signed by all WTO nations - trading-related aspects of international property rights - Criticism: privatization of knowledge; pressure from NGOs like Doctors Without Borders led to some changes in the TRIPS treaty = now, whenever there is a public health crisis, it should be prioritized over patents on pharmaceuticals |
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Realism |
- After 2nd world war - How the world should be organized - How selfish states act upon each other/interact --> Self interest - Int. System = Anarchy - States = trying to survive in the system (like Hobbes) - Dominant Framework for a long time - Each state is going to define it's individual interest in the international structure (cold war; 2 superpowers) - Balance of power system causing stability in the international system -> bipolar world - Realists say this time was a stable system because of the two balancing superpowers - Also multipolarism possible through balancing but not as stable as bipolaristic systems - Scholars in the 90s: end of USSR -> system of instability? Unipolarism? - No consensus until today |
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Neo-Liberalism/Institutionalism |
- came out of the idealism branch - there are situations where rational states interacting with each other and even benefit from the cooperation - Liberalism: states rational actors - Through the right institutions states can cooperate with each other --> interdependent world- Iterated games (prisoners dilemma) can be considered in this aspect: there is something in common and there are situations where cooperation is giving you a better payoff - Also agree on anarchy world but at the same time also interdependent based on economy issues |
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Constructivism |
- Not only looking at the material factors - Pay great attention to the powers of ideas/norms - Cold War: 2 superpowers having the argument engaging each other with atom bombs - Soviet Union: different identity because of different ideologies - USA: also different identity Constructivists looking at the competition of two divertical ideologies - Ideology of states important - Also looking at non-governmental organizations |
