Political Science 1

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authoritarian government

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a system of rule in which the government recognizes no formal limit but may nevertheless be restrained by the power of other social institutions

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citizenship

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informed and active membership in a political community

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constitutional government

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a system of rule in which formal and effective limits are placed on the powers of the government

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democracy

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a system of rule that permits citizens to play a significant part in the governmental process, usually through the election of key public officials

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direct democracy

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a system of rule that permits citizens to vote directly on laws and policies

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equality of opportunity

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a widely shared American ideal that all people should have the freedom to use whatever talents and wealth they have to reach their fullest potential

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government

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institutions and procedures through which a territory and its people are ruled

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laissez-faire capitalism

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an economic system in which the means of production and distribution are privately owned and operated for profit with minimal or no government interference

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liberty

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freedom from government control

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limited government

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a principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defined and limited by a constitution

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majority rule/ minority rights

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the democratic principle that a government follows the preferences of the majority of voters but protects the interests of the minority

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political equality

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the right to participate in politics equally, based on the principle of "one person, one vote"

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politics

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conflict over the leadership, structure, and policies of governments

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popular sovereignty

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a principle of democracy in which political authority rests ultimately in the hands of the people

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power

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influence over a government's leadership, organization, or policies

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representative democracy

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a system of government in which the populace selects representatives, who play a significant role in governmental decision making

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totalitarian government

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a system of rule in which the government recognizes no formal limits on its power and seeks to absorb or eliminate other social institutions that might challenge it.

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amendment

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a change added to a bill, law, or constitution,

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Anti-federalists

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those who favored strong state governments and a weak national government and were opponents of the constitution proposed at the American Constitutional Convention of 1787

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Articles of Confederation

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America's first written constitution; served as the basis for America's national government until 1789

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bicameral

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having a legislate assembly composed of two chambers or houses; distinguished from unicameral

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Bill of Rights

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first 10 amendments to the Constitution, ratified in 1791; they ensure certain rights and liberties

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checks and balances

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mechanisms through which each branch of government is able to participate in and influence the activities of other branches. Major examples include the presidential veto power over congressional legislation, the power of the Senate to approve presidential appointments, and judicial review of congressional enactments

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confederation

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a system of government in which states retain sovereign authority except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government

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elastic clause

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Article 1, Section 8, or the Constitution( also known as the necessary and proper clause), which enumerates the powers of Congress and provides Congress with the authority to make all laws " necessary and proper" to carry them out

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electoral college

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the presidential electors from each state who meet after the popular election to cast ballots for president and vice president

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expressed powers

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specific powers granted by the Constitution to Congress ( Article 1, Section 8) and to the president ( Article II)

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federalism

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a system of government in which power is divided by a constitution, between the central (national) government and regional ( state) governments

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Federalist Papers

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a series of essays written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay supporting the ratification of the Constitution

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Federalists

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those who favored a strong national government and supported the constitution proposed at the American Constitutional Convention of 1787

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Great Compromise

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the agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention of 177 that gave each state an equal number of senators regardless of its population, but linked representation in the House of Representatives to population

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judicial review

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the power of the courts to review and, if necessary, declare actions of the legislative and executive branches invalid or unconstitutional. The Supreme Court asserted this power in Marbury v. Madison (1803)

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limited government

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a principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defined and limited by a constitution

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New Jersey Plan

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a framework for the Constitution, introduced by William Paterson, that called for equal state representation in the national legislature regardless of population

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separation of powers

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the division of governmental power among several institutions that mus cooperate in decision making

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supremacy clause

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Article VI of the Constitution , which states that laws passed by the national government and all treaties " shall be the supreme law of the land" and superior to all laws adopted by any state or any subdivision

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Three-Fifths compromise

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the agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that stipulated that for purposes of the apportionment of congressional seats, five slaves would count as three free persons

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tyranny

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oppressive and unjust government that employs cruel and unjust use of power and authority

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Virginia Plan

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a frame work for the Constitution, introduced by Edmund Randolph, that provided for a system of representation in the national legislature based upon the populations of each state

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block grants

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federal grants-in-aid that allow states considerable discretion in how the funds are spent

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categorical grants

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congressional grants given to states and localities on the condition that expenditures be limited to a problem or group specified by law

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commerce clause

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Article 1, Section 8, of the Constitution, which delegates to Congress the power "to regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States and with the Indian Tribes"; the Supreme Court interpreted this clause in favor of national power over the economy

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concurrent powers

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authority possessed by both state and national governments, such as the power to levy taxes

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cooperative federalism

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a type of federalism existing since the New Deal era in which grants-in-aid have been used strategically to encourage states and localities ( without commanding them) to pursue nationally defined goals. Also known as "intergovernmental cooperation"

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devolution

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a policy to remove a program from one level of government by delegating it or passing it down to a lower level of government, such as from the national government to the state and local government

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dual federalism

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the system of government that prevailed in the United States from 1789 to 1937, in which most fundamental governmental powers were shared between the federal and state government

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expressed powers

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specific powers granted by the Constitution to Congress ( Article 1, Section 8) and to the president

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federalism

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a system of government in which power is divided, by a constitution, between the central government and regional governments

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federal system

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a system of government in which the national government shares power with lower levels of government, such as states

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full faith and credit clause

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provision from Article IV, Section 1, of the Constitution requiring that the states normally honor the public acts and judicial decisions that take place in another state

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general revenue sharing

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the process by which one unit of government yields a portion of its tax income to another unit of government, according to an established formula

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grants-in-aid

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programs through which Congress provides money to state and local governments on the condition that the funds be employed for purposes defined by the federal government

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home rule

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power delegated by the state to a local unit of government to allow that government to manage its own affairs

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implied powers

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powers derived from the necessary and proper clause of Article 1, Section 8, of the Constitution; such powers are not specifically expressed, but are implied through the expansive interpretation of delegated powers

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necessary and proper clause

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provision from Article 1, Section 8, of the Constitution providing Congress with the authority to make all laws necessary and proper to carry out its expressed powers

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New Federalism

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policy of Presidents Nixon and Reagan to return power through the states through block grants

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police power

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power reserved to the government to regulate the health, safety, and morals of its citizens

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preemption

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the principle that allows the national government to override state or local actions in certain policy areas; in foreign policy, the willingness to strike first in order to prevent an enemy attack

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privileges and immunities clause

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provision, from Article IV, Section 2, of the Constitution, that a state cannot discriminate against someone from another state or give its own residents special treatment

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reserved powers

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powers, derived from the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, that are not specifically delegated to the national government or denied to the states

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states' rights

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the principle that the states should oppose the increasing authority of the national government; this principle was most popular in the period before the Civil War

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unfunded mandates

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regulations or conditions for receiving grants that impose costs on state and local governments for which they are not reimbursed by the federal government

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unitary system

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a centralized government system in which lower levels of government have little power independent of the national government

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affirmative action

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government policies or programs that seek to address past injustices against specified groups by making special efforts to provide members of these groups with access to educational and employment opportunities

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Bill of Rights

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the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, they ensure certain rights and liberties to the people

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bills of attainder

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laws that declare a person guilty of a crime without a trail

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Brown v Board of Education

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the 1954 Supreme Court decision that struck down the "separate but equal" doctrine as fundamentally unequal. This case eliminated state power to use race as a criterion for discrimination in law and provided the national government with the power to intervene by exercising strict regulatory policies against discriminatory actions

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civil liberties

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areas of personal freedom with which governments are constrained from interfering

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civil rights

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obligation imposed on government to take positive action to protect citizens from any illegal action of government agencies and other private citizens

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clear and present danger test

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test to determine whether speech is protected or unprotected, based on its capacity to present a " clear and present danger" to society

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de facto

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literally, "by fact" ; practices that occur even when there is no legal enforcement, such as school segregation in much of the United States today

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de jure

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literally, " by law" ; legally enforce practices, such as school segregation in the South before the 1960's

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double jeopardy

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the Fifth Amendment right providing that a person cannot be tried twice for the same crime

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due process of law

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the right of every citizen against arbitrary action by national or state governments

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eminent domain

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the right of government to take private property for public use

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equal protection clause

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provision of the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteeing citizens " the equal protection of the laws." This clause has served as the basis for the civil rights of African Americans, women, and other groups

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establishment clause

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the First Amendment clause that says that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion." This law means that a " wall of separation" exists between church and state

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exclusionary rule

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the ability of courts to exclude evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment

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ex post facto laws

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laws that declare an action to be illegal after it has been committed

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Fifteenth Amendment

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one of three Civil War Amendments; guaranteed voting rights for African American men

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Fourteenth Amendment

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one of three Civil War Amendments; guaranteed equal protection and due process

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fighting words

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speech that directly incites damaging conducts

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free exercise clause

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the First Amendment clause that protects a citizen's right to believe and practice whatever religion he or she chooses

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grand jury

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the jury that determines whether sufficient evidence is available to justify a trail; grand juries do not rule on the accused's guilt or innocence

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habeas corpus

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a court order demanding that an individual in custody be brought into court and shown the cause for detention

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libel

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a written statement, made in " reckless disregard of the truth," that is considered damaging to a victim because it is " malicious, scandalous, and defamatory"

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Miranda rule

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the requirement, articulated by the Supreme Court in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), that persons under arrest must be informed prior to police interrogation of their rights to remain silent and to have the benefit of legal counsel

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prior restraint

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an effort by a governmental agency to block the publication of material it deems libelous or harmful in some other way; censorship. In the United States, the courts forbid prior restraint except under the most extraordinary circumstances

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right to privacy

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the right to be left alone, which has been interpreted by the Supreme Court to entail individual access to birth control and abortions

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selective incorporation

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the process by which different protections in the Bill of Rights were incorporated into the Fourteenth Amendment, thus guaranteeing citizens protection from state as well as national governments

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"separate but not equal" rule

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doctrine that public accommodations could be segregated by race but still be considered equal

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slander

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an oral statement, made in "reckless disregard of the truth," which is considered damaging to the victim because it is "malicious, scandalous, and defamatory"

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speech plus

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speech accompanied by conduct such as sit-ins, picketing, and demonstrations. Protection of this form of speech under the First Amendment is conditional, and restrictions imposed by state or local authorities are acceptable if properly balanced by considerations of public order

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strict scrutiny

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test used by the Supreme Court in racial discrimination cases and other cases involving civil liberties civil rights, that places the burden of proof on the government rather than on the challengers to show that the law in question is constitutional

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Thirteenth Amendment

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one of three Civil War amendments; abolished slavery.