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34 Cards in this Set

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anaphora
"(Greek for 'a carrying up or back'; also know as 'epanaphora') a figure of repetition that repeats the same word or phrase at the beginning of lines, clauses, or sentences, as in the Beatitudes of the Bible that make nine statemtns beginning with 'Blessed are':

Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is / the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they / that mourn, for they shall be comforted

The device is often used in oratory, sermons, and prophetic poetry. In Richard II, John of Gaunt uses the device effectively when he describes the England he loves. Also Walt Whitman depended on the device heavily, as did William Blake" (Myers, Wukasch, 17).
synecdoche
"(Greek for 'a receiving jointly') a figure of division in which a part stands for the whole in any one of four ways: (1) the general for the specific--'Here comes the law' (meaning a policeman); (2) the specific for the general--'He's nothing but a cutthroat' (meaning a murderer); (3) the part for the whole--'All hands on deck' (hands meaning sailors); and (4) the material for the object made from it--'He is my own flesh and blood' (meaning genetically related)" (Myers, Wukasch, 358).
metonymy
"(from Greek for 'change of name') a rhetorical figure of speech under the category of 'subject and adjunct' that replaces the subject for its characteristic(s), or its characteristic(s) for its subject. For example, the states of Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana are so closely associated with their geographical location, vegetation, dialects, and economies that they are called 'The South'" (Myers, Wukasch, 226-227).
metaphor
"(from Greek for 'to transfer, to carry across') a rhetorical figurative expression of similarity or dissimilarity in which a direct, nonliteral substitution or identity is made between one thing and another . . .

the tenor, or referential word which is usually stated first and is often of a general or abstract nature ('HOPE IS a bird')

the vehicle, usually the second term and commonly more concrete or specific ('Hope is a BIRD')

(Myers, Wukasch, 211).
verse
a line in a poem; a stanza, a refrain, or a section of the Bible; an entire poem based on regular meter; poetry displaying formal, prosodic attributes but lacking penetration and depth
form
1. substitute for the word genre (sonnet)
2.the design structure of the work
3. process of composition (stream of consciousness, dream, computer)
4. quality of emotion used in the poem (lyric, dirge, ode)
5. time of day and mood
6. myth scholars use it to refer to recurring plot shapes that a myth might explore
7. most central: used to describe the harmony of elements in a poem (direction, rhythm, sound, development, imagery, devices) which unite to form its organizing principle
apostrophe
figure of speech wherein the speaker addresses an absent quality, object, or person as if it were present and sentient
-often an invocation to the muses, or address to famous person of the past; it is used as a deeply emotional expression
caesura
a pause marked by (II) in the rhythm or meter of a line: can be caused by punctuation, syntax, rhyme, or the sound and meaning of the preceding word (usually occurs in the middle of a line (medial c.), but it can occur at the beginning (initial c.) or end (terminal c.) of a line).
-used either to emphasize the formality of poetic construction and its distance from conversation, or to loosen a strict meter and make it more natural and conversational
-said to be masculine if it follows an accented syllable, feminine if it follows an unaccented syllable
closed couplet
two lines of verse joined by rhyme and meter that make complete logical and/or grammatical sense; eg "Pope's 'Instruct the planets in what orbs to run,/Correct old time, and regulate the sun.'"
-closed refers to the independent, autonomous quality of the two lines in relation to the surrounding context
enjambment
a line ending in which the syntax, rhythm, and thought are continued and completed in the subsequent line
-in couplet, it creates the "open couplet"
-evokes suspense and anticipation in the reader, furthers the smooth development of a poem, and allows for variation in rhythm, syntax, and semantics
epiphany
the name of a Christian festival celebrated on January 6 commemorating the magi; a theological term signifying a manifestation of God's presence, as in the e. of Yahweh in the burning bush; formerly called (before James Joyce) "the moment" (aka single moment of revelation)
free verse
unmetered and often irregularly lined-out unrhymed verse that depends upon extensive variation in rhythm, blanced phrasing, syntactical repetition, and typographical and grammatical oddness to achieve its effects
-strength lies in the variation and subtlety of effects which it can achieve in contrast to the more limited possibilities of regularly metered, rhymed and structured verse.
-line or stanza acts as a basic unit or measurement but they may depend more upon formative units of pacing such as
1. syntactical unit: measures a line according to units of grammar
2. mind breath: very long line that is measured by how many words in a line one's mind could comfortably hold
3. the sense or thought unit: builds lines by parceling out discrete ideas, images, or other sensual perceptions
4. conversational unit: creates phrases and line lengths according to commonly spoken language
5. rhetorical unit: molds lines according to the emphasis in meaning and semantics that the poet intends
-claimed a middle ground b/w prose and metered verse
-creates an air of familiarity, accessibility, and naturalness
-language models it reflects:
1. verse written toward the style of prose
2. verse structured on semiformal speech rhythms
3. verse written toward the style of the common idiom or low diction
iamb
a duple metrical foot composed of an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable in accentual-syllabic verse, or a short syllable followed by a long syllable in quantitative meter
internal rhyme
a rhyme that occurs within a metrical line in order to create a musical or rhythmical effect different from that of end-rhyme
motif
a theme, device, event, or character that is developed through nuance and repetition in a work
-classic motifs
1. ubi sunt formula: laments the passing of something or someone
2. carpe diem: seize the day
3. stock characters: ugly-girl-turned princess, pauper-turned prince, braggart soldier
near (off) rhyme
general term for harmonic sound values that are not full rhymes assonantally or consonantally, but are partial rhymes (blood/good) (hour/saw) (tuck/look) (poem/sum)
-often depends upon the use of terminal consonance
perfect rhyme
the twinning sound values of stressed vowels and subsequent consonants as in "glow/blow", people/steeple, furious/curious, combination/domination
persona
the speaker of a poem who is easily recognized as being different from the poet-could be an animal, an inanimate object, or a character
personification
imaginative description of a vivid and fictional nature
-lends human qualities to abstractions and animate or inanimate objects
-designed to evoke emotion
quatrain
a poem or stanza of four lines, usually with alternating rhyme scheme
-most commonly seen in: epigram, long ballad, short ballad, art ballad, folk ballad, hymnal stanza . . .
refrain
a phrase, line, or stanza recurring regularly at the end of stanzas, or irregularly throughout a song or poem
-may be used to state action, time, setting, atmosphere, or tone
-to emphasize conditions or character
-to accumulate plot or information
-to editorialize; to create unity; to maintain rhythm or melody
-refrain could remain the same, but context around it can change to change its meaning
sestet
a poem composed of six lines, or a stanza of six lines
stanza
a fixed, or variable grouping of lines that is organized into thematic, metrical, rhetorical, musical, or narrative sections
tenor and vehicle
two parts of a metaphor
-tenor is the subject to which the vehicle refers; usually of a general and denotative nature
-vehicle is of a specific, imagistic, and connotative nature; carries the weight of the comparison lending its energy to the tenor
-represents a synthesis unobtainable in language that attempts to communicate information rather than experience
Intertextuality
refers to those conditions of texuality which affect and describe the relations between texts, and in most respects is synonymous with texuality.

-marked by two features: absence of an origin, and the function of randomness
-without a univocal and transcendental referent, all texts refer to one another--translate one another--in infinite and utterly random ways
prose
chief function: written representation and communication of information about events, processes, and facts that obtain in the external world
-constitutive principle is syntax
-artificial and stylized form, heavily influenced by the conditions of writing and by the rhythms of discursive thought

-The Princeton Handbook of Poetry
verse
-etymology means "turn"-the turn at the end of the line
1.lang. given rhythmic order
2. lang. set into lines
-not all verse is metrical
most speakers use "poem" as a synonym for "composition in verse"
-essentialists do not consider verseform essential to the definition of poetry (Aristotle is one of these), rather heightening of diction and figuration of syntax are criteria

-formalists consider verseform to be either necessary or sufficient--mainly the former--for the achievement of precisely those effects of heightened intensity, compression, or figured speech which are commonly considered the hallmark of "poetry"
-constitutive device of the sequence is design itself, manifested in sound and rhythm and leading to sense and order
-formalists do not view this as "supererogatory" (superfluous)
-seems to concern itself with the poem as artifact, essentialist with the poem as experience

-The Princeton Handbook of Poetry
allegory
a term that denotes two complementary prcedures: a way of composing literature and a way of interpreting it
-to compose allegorically is to construct a work so that its apparent sense refers to an "other" sense
-to interpret allegorically is to explain a work as if there were an "other" sense to which it referred
-both procedures imply each other and both forms increasingly stimulate one another as they develop into full-scale literary and interpretive movements in their own right
-there are degrees of allegorical composition depending on the extent to which a text displays two divided tendencies:
1. the first is for these elements of the text to exhibit a certain fictional autonomy
2. the other tendency is for these elements to imply another set of actions, circumstances, or principles, whether found in another text or at large
imagery
the root meanings and broad implications of this term are akin to the word "imitate," and hence refer to a likeness, reproduction, reflection, copy, resemblance, or similitude
-Sir Philip Sidney's "Defence of Poesie": the power of images lay in their ability to move us toward virtue and away from vice by means of their strong emotional appeal
-mental imagery:visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, organic, kinesthetic; not all poets have the same interests and capacities, therefore, with these images it is easier to appreciate different kinds of poetry; provides a valuable index to the type of imagination with which a given poet is gifted; pedagogically useful; attempt to describe the imag. of a poet is inextricably bound up with the imagination of the critic who analyzes it; tends to overemphasize the mental i at the expense of meaning, feeling, and sentiment; diverts attention from the function of the images
-can be the poem's subject
-can externalize, make the author's thoughts and feelings vivid
-can stimulate and externalize author's mental activity
-can serve to dispose the reader either favorably or unfavorably toward the various elements in the poetic situation
-can serve as a way of arousing and guiding the reader's expectations
-can serve to direct our attention, as we "slide," in Burke's term, from i. to symbolism, to the poem's inner meanings
figures of speech
synecdoche, metonymy, simile, metaphor, personification, allegory, symbol = one thing is said (analogue) while something else is meant (subject)
-two things related may each be images, feelings, or conceptsq
cluster criticism
form of study wherein imagery can be counted up, catalogued, and classified as certain types (nature, animate and inanimate, daily life, learning, commerce . . . )
-to types of clusters:
1. recurrence of the same image at intervals throughout the work
2. the recurrence of different images together at intervals
-cluster crit. leads to thoughts about symbol (more general) and myth
trope
as defined by Quintilian "'the artificial alteration of a word or phrase from its proper meaning to another...all the figures of discourse which consist of the divergent meaning of words, i.e. of a meaning more or less removed and different from their proper and literal meaning'"
-changes in the meanings of words
-a compressed instance of figure
-always involve at least the relating of other words, meanings, and usages to the ones at hand, or the comparing of various meanings for words or of one arrangement
figure
as defined by Quintilian "'a change in meaning or lang. from the ordinary and simple form...the characteristics, forms and turns...by which discourse, in the expression of ideas, thoguths and feeligns, stands more or less apart from what would have been their simple and common expression'"
-changes in the meanings of larger units of discourse
-expanded trope into larger discourse, and as intrusions of rhetoric into thought
-lways involve at least the relating of other words, meanings, and usages to the ones at hand...o rof one arrangement or usage of words for another possible one
scheme
figures of words and of thought; sometimes used the term for figures of speech or levels of style
-can broadly represent thought and lang. in their relations to reality, its true perception and understanding
-no longer used to speak of figurative language in rhetoric or literature