Plants Vocabulary

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green plants

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consist of the green algae* and land plants

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Green algae have traditionally been considered
protists, but we study them along with land plants for two reasons

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(1) they are the closest living relatives to land plants
(2) the transition from aquatic to terrestrial life occurred when land plants evolved from green algae

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green plants

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key to the carbon cycle

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Algae

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aquatic, autotropic, unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes

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Origin of green plants

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725 mya--Oxygen revolution begins

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Plants colonize land

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475 mya--Evolve from multicellular, freshwater green algae like Chara

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Plants adapt to dry environments

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400 mya--Vascular tissue, roots, leaves appear

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Seed plants evolve

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275 mya--Gymnosperms
appear in fossil record

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Flowering plants evolve

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145 mya

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Adaptations for Terrestrial Life

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–Deal with Dry Conditions
–Reproduction on Land

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The cell wall is mostly made of

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cellulose

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Cellulose

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is a molecule made of many glucose sugar molecules linked in long chains

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In support or water conducting cells, the wall is thickened and strengthened by

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lignin

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Biologists have long hypothesized that green algae are closely related to plants on the basis of several key morphological traits, including their

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chloroplast and cell wall structures

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The green algae include species that are unicellular, colonial, or multicellular and that live in

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marine or freshwater habitats

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Chloroplasts
contain

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chlorophyll a and b andmbeta carotene

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Based on morphology, the major phyla of plants are grouped into three categories

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nonvascular plants, seedless vascular plants, and seed plants

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Nonvascular plants lack

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vascular tissue

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vascular tissue

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specialized groups of cells that conduct water or dissolved nutrients from one part of the plant body to another

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Seedless vascular plants

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have well-developed vascular tissue but do not make seeds

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seed

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consists of an embryo and a store of nutritive tissue,
surrounded by a tough protective layer

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Seed plants

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have vascular tissue and make seeds

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Within the seed plants, GYMNOSPERMS

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produce seeds that do not develop in an enclosed structure

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In the flowering plants, ANGIOSPERMS

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seeds develop inside a protective structure called a carpel

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Land plants

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evolved from green algae

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Charaphyceae

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is the sister group to land plants

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green plants are monophyletic

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meaning that a single common ancestor gave rise to all of the green algae and land plants

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green algae group is

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paraphyletic

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land plants are

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monophyletic

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nonvascular plants

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are the earliest-branching, or most basal, groups among land plants

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The seed plants are a

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monophyletic group, as are the gymnosperms

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Seeds and flowers evolved only

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once

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Angiosperms

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are the most derived group

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Carboniferous plants

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converted huge amounts of atmospheric CO 2 into decay-resistant organic material

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Surviving flowering plants diversified into space left

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Niche release

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adaptive radiation

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is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in
the environment makes new resources available and opens environmental niches

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Coevolution

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A relationship develops between two organisms such that, as they interact with each other over time, each exerts a selection pressure on the other

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Many flowering plants rely on animals for cross-pollination:

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Insects
birds
mammals
even some reptiles and amphibians

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Cutin

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found in cuticle helps prevent pathogen attack

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Wax

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prevents desiccation

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Stomata

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are pores that open and close to allow gas exchange
while minimizing water loss

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Cuticle

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is a waxy, watertight sealant that covers the aboveground parts of the plant and gives them the ability to survive in dry environments

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Stems

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Contain vascular tissue and produce leaves and reproductive structures
Contain phloem and xylem

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Roots

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Specialized for uptake of water and minerals from the soil

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Leaves

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Photosynthetic function

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Leaf adaptations

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Leaf reduction
Succulent leaves
Leaf color
Spines
Orientation

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Leaf Reduction

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size & loss

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Succulent Leaves

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Succulent tissues, thick cuticle

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Leaf Color

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light coloration

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Spines

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solar insulation & predators protection

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Orientation

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Behavioral

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Leaves

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may be compound, doubly compound, or be needle-like

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Certain environmental conditions can influence both the efficiency and way the Calvin cycle works

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Light intensity
Temperature
Water availability

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lignin

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a structural polymer built from six-carbon rings

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tracheids

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the advanced water-conducting cells

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vessel elements

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the most specialized type of water-conducting cell appeared

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Earlywood

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Cellular growth results in a large size

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Latewood

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cells are smaller and smaller which appear darker

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The ring

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represents one year in the life of the tree

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Heartwood

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is a naturally occurring chemical transformation where wood becomes more resistant to decay

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Sapwood

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is the younger, outermost wood in the growing tree; functions are to conduct water from the roots to the leaves

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Xylem

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conducts water and mineral nutrients up from the roots

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Phloem

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cells carry organic matter (mostly sugar) from the leaves to other parts of the plant

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osmotic pressure

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is a higher concentration of particles inside the cell than outside; the cell wall acts as a rigid box to prevent the cell from bursting

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Epiphytes

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are plants that are adapted to grow in the absence of
soil

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Macronutrients

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are the building blocks of nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, phospholipids, and other key molecules required in relatively large quantities.

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Limiting nutrients

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are macronutrients that commonly act as limits on plant growth

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Micronutrients

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are required in very small quantities. Rather than acting as components of macromolecules, they usually
function as cofactors for specific enzymes

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When plants lack essential nutrients they display deficiency symptoms

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–Failure to reproduce, tissue death, and changes in leaf color
–Chlorosis–yellowing of
leaves

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Drought escapers

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growth changes temporally (bloom Spr or Fall)

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Drought avoiders

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growth changes temporally, grow microhabitats

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Drought tolerators

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morphological & physiological

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Passive mechanism

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depend on prey to fall or wander into trap

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Active mechanism

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traps stimulated by touch

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Bog Bodies

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A body that has been naturally mummified within a bog

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However, some bacteria are able to absorb N2 from the atmosphere and convert it to ammonia, nitrates, and nitrites in a process called

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Nitrogen Fixation

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stolons

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stems that run over the soil surface

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rhizomes

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stems that grow horizontally underground

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tubers

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rhizomes modified to store carbohydrates

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thorns

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stems that protect the plant

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gametangia

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protected gametes from drying and damage

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antheridium

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The sperm-producing structure

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archegonium

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The egg-producing structure

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embryophytes

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the zygote is retained on the gametophyte after fertilization and develops into a multicellular embryo that remains attached to the parent and is nourished by it

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alternation of generations

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individuals have a multicellular haploid phase called the gametophyte and a multicellular diploid phase known as the sporophyte

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The two phases of the life cycle are connected by distinct types of reproductive cells

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gametes and spores

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Gametophyte-dominated life cycles

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evolved early, as shown by the moss sporophyte-dominated life cycles evolved later

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heterospory

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the production of two distinct types of spore-producing structures and thus two distinct types of spores, male and female

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Homosporous

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produce a single type of spore that develops into a bisexual gametophyte that produces both eggs and sperm

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Microspores in microsporangia

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male gametophytes–pollen

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Megaspores in megasporangia

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female gametophyte develops and produces eggs

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Flowers contain two key reproductive structures:

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stamens and carpels

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stamen

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contains the anther, where microsporangia develop

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carpel

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contains the ovary in which the ovules are found.

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Stigma

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is where pollen sticks to

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Style

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is the long tube that connects stigma to ovary

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Ovary

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enlarged structure at the base of carpel/pistil where the
ovules are located; it will become the fruit

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Ovules

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contains female gametophyte, becomes the seed

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Stamen

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male floral organ

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Anther

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part of the stamen that produces pollen

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Filament

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stalk-like structure that holds anther

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Pollen

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immature male gametophyte

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fruit

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is a structure that is derived from the ovary and encloses one or more seeds

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Simple Fruits

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These fruits are produced by flowers containing one
pistil, the main female reproductive organ of a flower

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Aggregate Fruits

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These fruits are developed from flowers which
have more than one pistils. They consist of mass of small drupes that develops from a separate ovary of a single flower

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Multiple Fruits

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These fruits are developed not from one single flower but by a cluster of flowers

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Accessory Fruits

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These fruits are developed from plant parts other than the ovary

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Berries

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These fruits have a soft epicarp and the mesocarp and endocarp is fleshly. (Grapes, Tomatoes, Eggplants)

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Hesperidiums

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These fruits have thick, leathery exocarp and mesocarp. They have a juicy, pulpy endocarp arranged in a section of juice sacs from the ovary wall. (Citrus fruits)

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Pepo

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The berry has an outer wall or rind that is formed
from receptacle tissue that is fused to the exocarp. The mesocarp and endocarp from the fleshy interior.(Squashes)

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Drupe

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The fruits are developed from one carpel ovary and with one seed. The endocarp is hard and stony that
fits closely around the seed. The mesocarp is fleshy and the fruit has thin, soft exocarp.(Cherry, Peach, Olive, Lychee, Coconut)

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Pome

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The fruit is developed from a compound inferior
ovary. The ripened tissue around the ovary forms the
fleshy edible part. (Pears, apples)

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Capsule

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The fruit develops from compound ovary with two or more carpels and the capsules dehisce. (cotton, poppy and primrose)

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Silique

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This is a fruit that develops from two-carpel ovary, with the halves that fall away leaving the seeds attached to persistent, central wall. (Brassicaceae)

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Legume

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These fruits are dry dehiscent fruits that have pods that split on two sides. (Sweet pea, Beans, Peanut)

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Achene

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This is a small one-seeded fruit. The pericarp is easily separable from the seed coat. The fruits of buckwheat and sunflower

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Samara

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These are one or two seeded achene-like fruits. They form wings from the outgrowth of ovary walls. (Various trees: elms, ash and maple)

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Caryopsis

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These are one-seeded small fruits that have pericarp completely fused to the seed coat. (Wheat, Oats, Rice, Corn)

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Nuts

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These are one-seeded dried fruits with a hard pericarp. (Walnut, Hazelnut, Chestnut)

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The diversification of angiosperms is associated with three key adaptations

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(1) vessel elements, (2) flowers, and (3) fruits

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Monocots

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have one cotyledon, the first leaf, while dicots have two

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eudicots

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Because dicots are not a natural grouping

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Insect-pollinated

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species have sticky or barbed pollen grains

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Wind-pollinated

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species are lightweight, small and smooth (corn pollen)

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Aristotle

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Bees recruit others observed bees making movements

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Karl von Frisch

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First believed bees used flower scents or other odors to find food Sources Found dances performed by returning foragers

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Symbolic
Communication

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of environmental information that has been coded and transmitted to a receiver