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170 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Cell Wall
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Made up of eukaryotic cells bounded by rigid cell walls to exterior plasmalemma. Area between cells is called middle lamella
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Middle Lamella
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Important in fruit ripening as enzyme pectinases secreted and breaks down pectin
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Plasma Membrane
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Important for surviving frost. Semi-permeable, continuim throughout plant. Plasmadesmata (pores) occur thru the cell wall.
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Symplast
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Continium of living materials. Allows for transport of minerals and metabolites without leaving the cytoplasm
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Apoplast
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Non-living portions of plant tissue. Ie. the middle lamella or xylem
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Plasmalemma
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Composed of 3 major components: Lipids, Proteins, and Carbohyrdates
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Lipids (40%)
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Made up of polar and non-polar components. Contains phospholipids, sterols, and glycolipids
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Phospholipids
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Have a phosphate group which is the polar end linked with a glycerol molecular to a non-polar fatty acid tail.
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Glycolipids
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Sugar based hydroxyl is polar with non-polar fatty acid tail
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Sterols
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Cholesterol with a hydroxyl attached to a non-polar fatty acid tail.
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Unsaturated
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Double bond (kink) formed in tail and allows less tight packing and greater freedom of movement
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Saturated
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No kink formed and has tighter packing and more rigid
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Proteins (40%)
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enzymes that have important roles in transport of metabolites across the membrane
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Carbohydrates (20%)
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linked to proteins and lipids. On proteins the carbohydrateact to orient the protein and 3D confirmation of the protein when dealing with the membrane
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Liquid Crystalline
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Stage where cell wall is semi-permeable and alive
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Solid Gel
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Stage when at freezing temperature where permeability increases- visible as H20 soaked area
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Critical Temperature
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Temperature when turns from liquid crystalline to solid gel
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Cool Season Crops
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Higher number of unsaturated (double bond) fatty acids incorporated into phospholipids which slows down freezing process.
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Warm Season Crops
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Higher number of saturated fatty acids incorporated into phosopholipids which does not slow down the freezing process
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Nucleus
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surrounded by a porus, double membrane nuclear envelope. contains DNA and RNA
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Transportation network of lipids and proteins. Lipid synthesis does occur, regulates cytosolic concentration of calcium. Smooth and Rough E.R.
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Dictyosomes (Golgi Apparatus)
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Give rises to vesicles, assembling complex carbohyrdates for cell wall, synthesizing carbohyrdate side chain for glycoproteins in membrane
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Mitochondria
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organelle surroinded by double unit membrane. Centre of respiration and responsible for converting sugars into energy
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Vacoules
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Used for storage (H20), digestion (enzymes for breakdown),pH and Ionic homeostasis (reservoir for calcium), defence (secretes glycoside and protein inhibitors), sequestration of toxic compounds, pigmentation (anthocyanin)
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Plastids
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Made up of several different types of protoplastids
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Amyoplast
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unpigmented plastid that contains starch granuales
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Leucoplasts
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colourless plastids involved in synthesis of monoterpenes (voltaile compound found in oils)
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Etioplasts
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plastids with development from proplastids to chloroplasts that has been arrested by low light. Contain no chlorophyll
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Chloroplasts
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green, photosynthetic plastids responsible for energy capture bounded by a double membrane
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Thylakoid Network
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Chlorophyll contained in thylakoids which has 2 distinct types of membrane domains, stacked (grana thylakoids) and unstacked (stroma thylakoids). Light rxn occurs here
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Stroma
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Grana thylakoids (stacked) and Stroma thylakoids (unstacked). Dark rxn occurs here (using ATP)
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Gymnosperm
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cone bearing (naked seeds) plant, more primitive
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Angiosperm
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flowering (enclosed seed) plant split into Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons
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Monocots
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Approx. 65,000 species
1 seeded leaf Parallel leaf veins Flowers in 3's Fibrous roots Stem vascular bundles are scattered Pollen (single pore) < 10% are woody |
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Dicots
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Approx 170,000 species
2 seeded leaves Netted leaf veins Flowers in 4's & 5's Primary Taproot Stem vascular bundles in circle Pollen (tri-pore) > 50% are woody |
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Apical Meristem
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primary meristem which cell division occurs and adds to shoot length
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Axillary Bud
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Found between the leaf stalk and stem, gives rise to a lateral branch or flowers. Remains dormant-under hormonal control
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Root Apical Meristem
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At the tip of the root, primary meristem adding to root length
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Vegetative Apical Meristem
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produces leaves inserted at nodes, internodes are very short so no obvious stem
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Sheath
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Has little chlorophyll and acts as a pseudostem for meristem protection
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Adventitious Roots
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root system that arises from nodes at the base of the stem, replaces disintegrating seminal roots
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Intercalary Meristem
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Occurs in the region of the nodes where the meristemical tissue (cell growing) of grasses and are responsible for stem (culm) extensions. Leaf growth also occurs from here
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Culm
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True stem in grasses
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Secondary Meristem
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Occurs mostly in Dicot species (woody plants), vascular cambium and cork cambium. Adds to stem diameter & width
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Vascular Cambium
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produces additional vascular tissue, secondary xylem, and secondary phloem
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Cork Cambium
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produces the outer bark
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Dermal Tissue
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covers the exterior of the organs & include the epidermis and periderm(woody)
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Vascular Tissue
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conducting tissues-xylem and phloem
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Ground Tissue
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Metabolic, supporting, & storage tissues include the cortex, pith, and mesophyll
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Meristem
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All tissues come from the meristem, give rise to 3 transitional meristems: protoderm, procambium, and ground meristem
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Protoderm
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Gives rise to dermal tissue
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Procambium
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Gives rise to vascular tissue
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Ground Meristem
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Gives rise to ground tissue
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Simple Ground Tissues
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Parenchyma, collenchyma, & sclerenchyma
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Parenchyma
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-Thin pliable walls
-alive at maturity -capable of division -large vacuoles -metabolism and storage cells -found in pith, cortex and mesophyll |
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Aerenchyma Tissue
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-Specialized parenchyma
-loosely packed cells with large air spaces -contributes to buoyancy -allows oxygen into the plant for metabolism |
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Transfer Cells
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-Specialized parenchyma
-irregular extension (invagination) of their primary cell wall -involved in transfer or disolved substances -ie carnivorous plants |
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Chlorenchyma Cells
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-Specialized parenchyma
-contains chloroplasts & make up mesophyll tissue -found in green parts for photosynthesis -found on edge of cells |
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Collenchyma Tissue
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-secondary thickening is cellulose and pectin
-collenchyma cells -alive at maturity -elongated, irregular thickened walls -give strength & flexibility -found below the epidermis of young stems & petioles |
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Sclerenchyma Tissue
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-secondary wall thickening is cellulose, hemicellulose, & lignin
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Sclereid
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-Sclerenchyma
-dead at maturity -highly thickened lignified secondary cell walls -maybe star shaped or simple stone cells -scattered in ground tissue or small clusters -ie grit in pear tissue |
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Fibers
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-Sclerenchyma
-dead at maturity -elongated, longer than wide with a small lumen -found in stem cortex, vascular tissues, & some leaves and fruits -Provide support -ie cotton |
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Epidermis
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forms a protective covering of plant organs, commonly 1 cell thick. Produced by protoderm. 3 roles protection, transfer, and allows uptake in roots
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Parenchyma Epidermis Tissue
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-living, lack chloroplasts
-exterior cell walls are thicker than inner walls -fit together tightly |
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Cuticle
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-secrete cutin (fatty substance) to repel water on surface of their outer walls to form a cuticle
-shoots and leaves maybe several layers thick- waxy barrier -thin in roots |
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Guard Cells
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-appear pairs in surrounding stomatal pore
-living at maturity, contain chloroplasts -inner walls facing pores are thicker than outer walls -function to regulate opening and closing of pores -expands with no fluid, collapses with fluid |
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Epidermal Trichomes
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-hairs
-found on shoots and leaves, extension from an epidermal cell -consist of one or more cells-maybe secretary -hairs trap moisture -forms boundary layer on leaf -acts as protection |
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Epidermal Gland
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-secretary cells (glands) may also occur in epidermis (carnivorous plants)
-excrete an alluring substance or digestive enzymes |
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Root Epidermis
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-epidermal cells may have root hairs
-increase surface area for water uptake |
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Vascular System
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-made up of two main cells: xylem (transport water and minerals roots-top) and phloem (transport sugars from site of production to area of metabolic activity)
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Xylem Tissue
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-dead at maturity
-produced by procambium -made up of tracheids, vessel elements, parenchyma cells, and fibers |
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Vessel Elements
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-large diameter
-conducting cell -reduced or no end walls-perforatted plates -join end-end to form vessels -faster transport of water |
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Tracheids
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-conducting cell
-dead at maturity -elongated and form tubes stacked -narrow and have tapered ends -connected through bordered pits -no secondary thickening -better for transporting water at greater heights |
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Phloem Tissue
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-living at maturity
-sugars move from source-sink -sieve tube members & companion cells, parenchyma cells, fibers, &/or sclereids |
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Sieve Tube Members
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join end-end, end walls contain pores which cytoplasm can extend (sieve plates)
-no nucleus, companion cell directs activities |
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Vascular Bundle
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-primary xylem and phloem occur together
-phloem to outside, xylem inside |
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Roots
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principle functions include: anchoring plant, absorbing water and minerals, storage, conduct absorbed materials into the plant body
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Root Apical Meristem (RAM)
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root structure occurs from here
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Root tip
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organized into four regions (bottom-top):
-root cap -region of cell division -region of elongation -region of maturation |
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Root Cap
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-thimble shaped cap that protects & covers RAM
-cells continuously added to replace root cap cells sloughed off -gravity is perceived (statholiths-amyoplasts- stimulate auxins which cause cells on one side to elongate more-starch granuales settle against wall and stimulates auxin which causes elongation) |
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Region of Cell Division
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-directly behind root cap
-meristematic region -cells divide every 12-36hrs -includes apical meristem & immediate area above -very small area |
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Region of Elongation
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-new cells elongate (pushes root tip through soil)
-root cap + region of division + region of elongation= ~1cm |
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Region of Maturation
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where cell differentiation occurs & large number of root hairs are produced (root hair zone)
-root hairs don't live long |
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Dicot Root
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-consists of an outer epidermis, cortex, inner stele (consists of primary vascular tissue bounded by pericycle & endodermis)
-epidermis (protoderm) consists of epidermal cells (maturation) -thin cuticle -many root hairs -have fungal associations to act as root hairs |
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Root Cortex
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-derived from ground meristem and loosely packed parenchyma cells
-perform as storage -inner layer of cortex is endodermis |
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Apoplastic System
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-gaps between cells allowing the flow of water and nutrients
-fast flow of water -movement thru the inetcellular spaces & cell walls |
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Symplastic System
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-water crossing the cell membrane -very slow flow of water
-movement thru the living cells from protoplasts-protoplasts thru the plasma desmata |
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Endodermis-Casparian Strip
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-waxy material (suberin) embedded in their upper & lower (transverse) side (radial) walls forming casparian strip
-blocks movement of water and minerals in the apoplast cell wall |
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Steb
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cylinder formed by xylem and phloem at centre of the root surrounded by 1 or more layers of parenchyma cells that form the pericycle
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Pericycle
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-gives rise to lateral roots
-contributes yo vascular cambium that produces secondary xylem and phloem (secondary thickening) -contributes to cork cambium that produces cork cells that replace the cortex and epidermis in woody roots |
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Monocot Roots
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xylem and phloem are not tightly arranged and alternate in a ring that surrounds an inner pith (parenchyma tissue).
-Very little or no cortex, so endodermis found inside of epidermis (exodermis) -all water movement is symplastic |
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Storage Roots
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-contain an abundance of storage parenchyma in the cortex & secondary xylem & phloem
(carbohydrates-carrots,parsnips) -Water storage (pumpkins-cucurbitacease stores water in root cortex) |
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Aerial Roots
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-adevntitious roots of ivy support climbing
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Prop Roots
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-prop roots of corn provide support
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Velamen Roots
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-Velamen Roots of orchids have a multiple layered epidermis & may contain chlorophyll
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Epiphytic Plants
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-Epiphytic plants less likely to be stepped on
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Pneumataphores
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-Pneumataphores spongy roots extending above the water to increase oxygen uptake
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Propagative Roots
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-produce adventitous buds that develop into aerial stems (canada thistle-suckers)
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Contractile Roots
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-contracted to pull the stem meristem below the soil surface (dandelions)
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Parastic (Havstoria) Roots
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peg like roots thar penetrate host plant to gain water & nutrients (miseltoe)
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Nitrogen Fixation
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-plants taking nitrogen from the soil in the form of NO3 of NH4
-some plants form symbiotic relationship with bacteria to fix the nitrogen for the plant |
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Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria
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-specific to plant species
-inhabits nodules on plant roots due to plant secreting signals for bacteria -nodule formed from root cortex cells -bacteria fix in N into Ammonium & ammino acids which plant can use (carbs & ATP) |
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Mycorrhiza (microbe association)
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-describes the association between plant roots and fungi
-act like an extension to the root system for water, P, and N absorption -Not species specific -Host plants supply C & energy to micorrhiza |
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Ectomycorrhiza
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forms a sheath of fungal hypha arround the outside of the absorbing roots & between the cortical cells-replace root hairs
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Endomycorrhiza
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-Vesicular Arbuscular Micorrhizae (VAM) surround the root & penetrate & proliferate within the root cortex cells
-Infected roots may be shorter & wider than non-infected |
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Plant Stem Function
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-Support (get leaves & flowers up to light/wind/pollinators)
-Transport (of water, minerals, & sugars) -Storage (organs for water, starch, suagr, etc) -Protection (thorns-stem, prickles-trichomes) -Propagation (stolons, rhizomes, bulbs, corms) |
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Dicot Stem
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-Epidermis (epdiermal parenchyma, guard cells, trichomes, cuticle)
-Ground Tissue (cortex & pith) -Cortex (parenchyma cells near epidermis may have chloroplats, may also store sugars, water) -Pith (parenchyma in center of stem-in some plants tissue breaks down=hollow stem) |
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Vascular Bundles-Dicots
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-Surrounded by bundle sheath (Inner=xylem, Outer=phloem)
-Form a circle or cylinder (Outside=cortex, Inside=inside) -Xylem & phloem separated by residual procambium-may become active vascular cambium & produce secondary xylem & phloem) -Stems not always round |
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Monocot Stem
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-most cases vascular bundles are scattered in the ground tissue (no division into cortex & pith)
-some stems are hollow (wheat) -no secondary thickening because vascular bundles are not uniformly arranged |
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Stolons
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-stem adaptation, above ground, horizontal stems-"runners"
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Rhizomes
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-stem adaptation, below ground stems
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Tubers
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-stem adaptation, enlarged portions of underground stems (swollen) ie eyes on potato
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Corms
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-stem adaptation, short thickened underground stem covered by papery leaves terminal shoot/bud
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Bulb
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-stem adaptations, compressed stem surrounded by fleshy leaves and central bud/shoot
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Cladophylls
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-stem adaptation, flattened photosynthetic stems that function as leaves, may bear flowers & fruits
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Thorns
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-stem adaptation, originate from axial buds of leaves (modified branch)
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Prickles
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-stem adaptation, large trichomes (roses)
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Tendrils
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-stem adaptation, modified stems that coil around objects to supply support
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Lateral Meristem
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vascular cambium helps with the secondary growth increasing diameter
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Interfasicular Cambium
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part in between vascular bundles, cells are differentiated for new growth and aid in secondary growth
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Fasicular Cambium
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part underneath vascular bundle
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Lenticels
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little holes interrupt the periderm and allow for the diffusion of oxygen into the stem
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Wood
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secondary xylem, 3 basic functions: water transport, structural sport, and storage. Not completely dead (parenchyma cells)
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Hardwood
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Angiosperm wood have fibers for strength
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Softwood
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Conifer wood and on average lighter than angiosperm because no fibers
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Gymnosperm Wood
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Pine, all cell walls have 2 walls and are lignified
-axial system ~95% of volume tracheids -Radial system=rays |
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Radial System
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Rays consist of parenchyma cells that function in lateral conduction of nutrients & water, xylem and phloem
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Leaves
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responsible for photosynthesis but can provide protection, create offspring, trap insects for nutrients, control water movement, storage
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Light Capture
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Photosynthesize leaves must absorb light & CO2 and release O2
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Dicot Leaves
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Consists of a blade (lamina) and a petiole that attaches to the stem at a node, pair of stipules maybe found to deter insects
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Lamina
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Blade, provides a broad flat surface for the absorption of light and CO2
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Petiole
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Orients the leaf and hold it away from the sun, some can change the leaf angle to follow or avoid the sun
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Compound Leaves
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Either palmate (leaflets diverge from a single point) or pinnate (leaflets are arranged along an axis (rachis) odd or even), can also be bi-pinnate arranged
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Leaf Arrangement
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Avoiding direct overlapping or shading of other leaves, 3 types: alternative (1 leaf/node 180), spiral (1 leaf/node 137.5), opposite (2 leaves/node 90), whorled (3 or more leaves/node)
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Epidermis
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-Thick cuticle to restrict water loss (cutin)
-stomata for gas exchange & transpiration (usually on lower leaf surface) |
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Ground Tissue
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-Mesophyll tissue chlorenchyma site of photosynthesis
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Palisade Mesophyll
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below upper epidermis, cells tightly packed, contains 80% of chloroplasts
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Spongy Mesophyll
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lower half of leaf, cells are irregular in shape & have large air spaces b/w them, 20% of chloroplasts
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Chloroplasts
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-green plastids responsible for energy capture-photosynthesis
-bounded by double membrane -inner membrane system of thylakoids (stacked grana and unstacked stroma) -light rxn in thylakoids -dark rxn in stroma -substomatal space aids in gaseous exchange |
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Vascular Tissue
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xylem towards upper surface and phloem towards lower surface
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Bundle Sheath Cells
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-in C3 plants bundle sheath cells are small & inconsipicious w/ few chloroplasts
-in C4 plants bundle sheath cells are large w/ dense chloroplasts |
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Monocot Leaves
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-mesophyll tissue has no pallisade layer
-leaves of some grasses have specialized bulliform cells |
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Bulliform Cells
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-when leaves are water stressed, the bulliform cells collapse causing the leaf to fold inward
-helps reduce water loss, puts stomata on the inside & traps humid air close to the stomata, surface area also reduced |
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Gymnosperm Pine Needle
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adaptation to conserve moisture:
-low surface area -thick cuticle -hypodermis of sclerenchyma cells -few air spaces -tightly packed mesophyll cells -sunken stomata |
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Stomatal Opening
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-When illuminated, guard cell pumps H+ ions out of cell creating pH and electrical gradient
-K+ and Cl- are channelled across the plasma membrane into the cell increasing osmotic potential -Increase in osmotic potential draws H2O, guard cells turgid and expand opening the pore |
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Abcisic Acid
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A PGR diffuses to the guard cell & stimulates to release K+ and Cl- causing H2O to flow out of the cell
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Leaf Adaptations
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-seedling leaves maybe different in shape then mature leaves
-protective spines -tendrils -water storage -floral leaves-bracts (poinsetta) -propagation -insect trapping |
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Receptacle
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-region where floral parts are attached
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Sepals
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-Outermost whorl of floral parts
-maybe leaf like or resemble petals -protect inner part of flower from physical damage -collectively called a calyx |
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Petals
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-variable in colour, odor, attachment, symmetry
-collectively called a corolla |
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Petal Attachment
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-Apetalous: no petals
-Sympetalous: petals are partially or completely fused -Choripetalous: petals are seperate |
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Petal Symmetry
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-Regular: all floral parts are of similar shape & size
-Irregular: all floral parts are not same size or shape |
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Stamens
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-pollen bearing structure
-includes anther & filament -anther contains pollen -collectively called andromecium |
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Pistil
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-includes the ovary, style, & stigma
-pollen lands on stigma & germinates & the pollen tube grows thru the style to reach ovule for fertilization -ovary divided into chambers called carpels which contain ovules -collectively called gynoecium |
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Periam
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Sepals and petals together
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Inflorescences
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flowers found in groups on a floral axis
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Peduncle
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stalk below the inflorescence
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Pedicels
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stalks below each individual flower
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Spike
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unbranched, flowers attached directly to central axis
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Racemes
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unbranched, flowers are attached by pedicels to the central axis
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Panicle
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branched raceme
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Umbel
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flowers attached by pedicels which arise from a common point
-simple or compound |
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Corymb
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unbranched, pedicels of unequal length alternately attached along central axis
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Hed
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peduncle with flowers attached to a broad receptacle
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Complete flowers
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contain all floral components including sepals, petals, stamens, carpels
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Incomplete Flowers
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missing one or more of the components
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Perfect Flowers
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have both female pistil and male stamen repoductive structures
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Imperfect Flowers
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have only one of the reproductive structures (pistalate or staminate)
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Microsporagenesis
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-occurs in anther
-each microspore form a pollen grain -go from 2N-1N meiosis -fuses with egg cell |
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Megasporagenesis
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-occurs in ovule
-4 megaspore cells produced from original (2N-1N) -3 degenerate & only 1 continues to develop which undergoes mitosis to form a 8-nucleate sac |
