Physiology Of Behavior

Front 1

Frequency (pitch)

Back 1

the rate at which waves vibrate, measured as cycles per second, or hertz.

Front 2

Amplitude (loudness)

Back 2

the intesity of sound, usually measured in decibels. Amplitude roughtly corresponds to our perception of loudness

Front 3

Complexity (timbre)

Back 3

most sounds are a mixture detemines the sound's timbre or perceived uniqueness. timbre provides info about the nature of a sound

Front 4

Sound perception

Back 4

Auditory system converts the physical properties of sound-wave energy into electrochemical neural activity that travels to the brain

Front 5

Auditory Receptors: Hair Cells

Back 5

Transduction of sound waves into neural activity takes place primarily in the 3500 inner hair cells.

Front 6

Frequency Coding on Basilar Membrane

Back 6

a narrow thick base is tuned for high frequencies. A wide thin apex is tuned for low frequency

Front 7

Sensory Transduction Occurs in the Hair Cells

Back 7

Movement of cilia ____towards____ the tallest one depolarizes the cell, causing K+ influx (depolarization), which opens Ca2+ channels and release of transmitter, which stimulates cells that form the auditory nerve.

Front 8

Sensory Transduction Occurs in the Hair Cells

Back 8

Movement of cilia towards the shortest one hyperpolarizes the cell, resulting in less neurotransmitter release.

Front 9

Sensory Transduction - 2
first part

Back 9

At Rest: ~15% of cilia K+ channels are open. This influx slightly depolarizes hair cell,  opening of Ca2+ channels and release of sml amt of glutamate onto spiral ganglion cells. Moderate firing rate of ganglion cells.

Front 10

Sensory Transduction - 2
Second part

Back 10

Displacement toward tallest cilia: Stretches tip links  many more K+ channels open. K+ influx depolarizes hair cell further  greater Ca2+ influx and release of larger amt of glutamate onto spiral ganglion cells. High firing rate of ganglion cells.

Front 11

Sensory Transduction - 2
third part

Back 11

Displacement toward shortest cilia: Relaxes tip links  100% K+ channels closed. Hair cell hyperpolarizes. Much less Ca2+ influx and much less release of glutamate onto spiral ganglion cells. Low firing rate of ganglion cells.

Front 12

Two Distinct Bilateral Auditory Pathways
first part

Back 12

Ventral Cochlear N.  Superior Olive N. (Where)
Millisecond differences in arrival times of auditory signals at L & R ears is preserved in Ventral Cochlear Nucleus.

Differences in timing and amplitude detected in superior olive, permit localization of sound or the direction of sound origin.

Front 13

Two Distinct Bilateral Auditory Pathways

Second part

Back 13

2. Dorsal Cochlear N.  Inferior Colliculus N. (What)
Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus detects differences in the frequencies within sound signals.

Permits detection of sound qualities and may be first step in phonetic discrimination of words

Auditory “What” Pathway has Tonotopic Maps

Front 14

Two Distinct Bilateral Auditory Pathways
first part (WHERE)

Back 14

Differences in time that sound arrives at each ear & detected by cochlear ganglion cells of each inner ear permit the localization of sounds.

This process works fine except for sounds originating from directly ahead or behind us.

Front 15

Auditory Cortex – Detection of Patterns in Sound

Back 15

Music and language are perhaps the primary sound-wave patterns that humans recognize:
– Music = right hemisphere
– Language = left hemisphere

Most research on audition comes from nonhuman primates
– e.g., Winter & Funkenstein (1971): neurons in A1 of the squirrel monkey are responsive to vocalizations made by other squirrel monkeys.

Front 16

For Musicians – Size Does Matter

Back 16

Neurophysiological recording and functional imaging studies indicate strong correlation between activity & size of primary auditory cortex (A1) and musical ability.

Color-coded depiction of the temporal lobe area comprising A1 in 3 groups of human subjects.

130% increase in size of A1 in musicians vs. nonmusicians

Front 17

Monosynaptic Spinal Reflexes

Back 17

• Hammer tap stretches quadriceps muscle, the la sensory fibers in muscle spindles sense increased stretch, the la sensory fibers stimulate alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord, and alpha motor neurons cause quadriceps muscle to contract, foot kicks

Front 18

Primary Motor Cortex (M1)

Back 18

M1 neurons project long axons to excite spinal motor neurons.
Behavior role: executing voluntary movement.
Firing the M1 neuron is time locked to movement of a given body part

Front 19

Describe the major role of the premotor (PM) cortex

Back 19

• Premotor Cortex, Behavioral role: Planning complex movements by selecting the correct motor program to be executed by M1. Located just rostral to M1 in frontal lobe. Association areas of occipital, temporal, & parietal cortex project to Premotor Cortex

Front 20

essential concepts of the Kurata
experiment

Back 20

• Kurata and others: Premotor (PM) neurons discharge in response to instructional stimuli that indicate the correct movement to be made

Front 21

what “set-related” activity represents

Back 21

• This “Set-related activity” is considered to reflect the planning of future movement. PM “instincts” M! about which motor program to execute
• M1 neurons discharge in response to trigger stimulus – “Go!” – movement execution

Front 22

Voluntary movement group

Back 22

o corticospinal
o corticobulbar
o corticorubral
o rubrospinal

Front 23

Involuntary movement group

Back 23

o vestibulospinal
o reticulospinal
o tectospinal

Front 24

o corticospinal

Back 24

M1 -> s.c. = movement of limbs, fingers, hands, trunk

Front 25

o corticobulbar

Back 25

M1 ->cranial nerve n. = face, jaw, tongue, eyes

Front 26

o corticorubral

Back 26

M1 -> red nucleus

Front 27

o rubrospinal

Back 27

Red nucleus ->spinal cord = limbs

Front 28

o vestibulospinal

Back 28

Vestibular nuclei -> s.c. = balance, posture adjustment

Front 29

o reticulospinal

Back 29

Pons, medulla reticular form. ->s.c. = posture

Front 30

o tectospinal

Back 30

Superior colliculus -> s.c. = reflex. eye movements

Front 31

"homunculus” in primary motor cortex (M1).

Back 31

• Is Penfield(1950, McGill U) Electrical stimulation of M1neuron caused contraction of muscles in the corresponding body part

Front 32

Primary Motor Cortex and Corticospinal Tract

Back 32

Ex: M1 role in movement
Stimulation of region of left M1 region corresponding to the palm causes contraction of the palm hypothenar muscles in the right hand.

Front 33

Mapping Human M1 with TMS

Back 33

Trans-cranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) coil generates magnetic field impulses which stimulate underlying neurons in a focused volume. By measuring responses to the stimulations and tracking the position of the coil relative to the MR scan functional maps of the brain can be generated in a low-cost, non-invasive, and accurate manner

Front 34

Premotor Cortex

Back 34

Behavioral role: Planning complex movements by selecting the correct motor program to be executed by M1

Located just rostral to M1 in frontal lobe.

Association areas of occipital, temporal, & parietal cortex project to Premotor Cortex

Front 35

Premotor Cortex and Motor Planning

Back 35

Kurata & Tanji (1986-1993): recorded Premotor (PM) neurons from monkeys performing a delayed response task.

Set-related activity in PM: significant elevation of firing rate during the delay period. Likely reflects motor preparation or the selection of the correct motor program.

Front 36

Supplementary Motor Area (SMA)

Back 36

• SMA is involved in Planning movements using internal guides and they execute these plans through their connections with the primary motor cortex( i.e. Memory

Front 37

• Roland et al. (1980) measured regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), in humans performing 2 tasks under 3 conditions:

Back 37

o 1. Flexion of finger against spring-loaded device M1 and S1 cortex activated
o 2. Performing a learned sequence of finger movements S1, M1, PMD, SMA
o 3. Told to think about performing the same sequence (mental rehearsal), but remain motionless only SMA activated (mental rehearsal)

Front 38

Define the “motor homunculus” in primary motor cortex (M1).

Back 38

• Is Penfield(1950, McGill U) Electrical stimulation of M1neuron caused contraction of muscles in the corresponding body part.

Front 39

supplementary motor area (SMA)?

Back 39

is involved in Planning movements using internal guides and they execute these plans through their connections with the primary motor cortex( i.e. Memory)

Front 40

Describe the contribution of the basal ganglia

Back 40

• The motor nuclei of the basal ganglia include the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus and a strong connections w/ the substantia nigra.(3 forebrain nuclei)

Front 41

Direct pathway
basal ganglia

Back 41

• Cortex ->Striatum -> Globus pallidus internal (GPi) -> Ventrolateral (VL) + Ventroanterior (VA) thalamus -> SMA, PM, M1

Front 42

Indirect pathway
basal ganglia

Back 42

• Cortex -> Striatum -> Globus pallidus external (GPe) -> Subthalamic n (STN) -> Globus pallidus internal (GPi) -> VL+VA thalamus ->SMA, PM, M1

Front 43

cerebellum contributes to the brain control of voluntary movement

Back 43

timing and sequencing of complex movements

Front 44

What are the consequences of damage to M1, and to the cerebellum

Back 44

Apraxia
Limb Apraxia
Constructional Apraxia

Front 45

• Apraxia

Back 45

difficulty performing skilled movement

Front 46

o Limb Apraxia

Back 46

damage to arm region of left M1 results in production of incorrect movements of the right arm. e.g., S given verbal command – “pretend you are unlocking the door of your house with a key” S can hear the command but has difficulty executing the correct motor program to achieve the action.

Front 47

• Constructional Apraxia

Back 47

damage to right parietal lobe à difficulty making skilled mov’ts with hands. Deficits with an inability to perceive, draw, or imagine geometric and spatial relationships. Understanding pantomiming.

Front 48

Define the motor pathways that are compromised by Huntington’s disease (HD)

Back 48

•Neurobiology: Loss of striatal-globus pallidus GABAergic neurons:
Leads to over activity of the indirect pathway à increased expression of unwanted movements.
Leads to under activity of the direct pathway à slowness to initiate desired movement.

Front 49

Huntington’s disease (HD), the major
symptoms

Back 49

involuntary, jerky movements, slowness to initiate movement, depression, dementia, hallucination and delusions

Front 50

Huntington’s disease (HD treatments

Back 50

: Antioxidants, caspase inhibitors, neurotrophic factors, fetal tissue transplants and embryonic stem cells may provide treatment in the future.

Front 51

Dorsal Cochlear N. ->Inferior Colliculus N. (What)

Back 51

o Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus detects differences in the frequencies within sound signals. Permits detection of sound qualities and may be first step in phonetic discrimination of words

Front 52

• Ventral Cochlear N. -> Superior Olive N. (Where)

Back 52

o Differences in timing and amplitude detected in superior olive, permit localization of sound or the direction of sound origin.

Front 53

pinna

Back 53

• The outer ear sound is funneled through the ear canal to the tympanic membrane (eardrum) which vibrates the sound.

Front 54

tympanic membrane

Back 54

(eardrum) which vibrates the sound.

Front 55

ossicles,

Back 55

middle ear contains the bones of the middle ear which are set into vibration by the tympanic membrane.

Front 56

malleus

Back 56

(hammer) connects with the tympanic membrane and transmits vibration via the incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup) to the cochlea, the structure that contains the receptors.

Front 57

incus

Back 57

(anvil)

Front 58

stapes

Back 58

(stirrup)

Front 59

cochlea

Back 59

(snail) is part of the inner ear. It is filled with fluid; therefore, sounds transmitted through the air must be transferred into a liquid medium

Front 60

3 sections of the cochlea

Back 60

scala vestibule (vestibular stairway), the scala media (middle stairway) and the scala tympani (tympanic stairway)

Front 61

Define how different frequencies of sound are represented on the basilar membrane

Back 61

• Frequency coding on basilar membrane in an uncoiled cochlea a narrow, thick base is tuned for high frequencies. A wide, thin apex is tuned for low frequencies

Front 62

How is amplitude represented?

Back 62

• Amplitude is represented as the intensity of the sound and is measured in decibels. Amplitude roughly corresponds to our perception of loudness

Front 63

timbre

Back 63

a perceptual dimension od sound; corresponds to coplexity

Front 64

round window

Back 64

an opening in the bone surrounding the cochlea of the inner ear that permits vibrations to be transmitted, via the oval wndow, into the fluid in the cochlea

Front 65

lateral lemniscus

Back 65

a band of fibers running rostrally through the medulla and pons; carries fibers of the auditory sysstem

Front 66

cilium

Back 66

hailike structure of a cell involved in movement or in transducing sensory information; found on the reptors in the auditory and vestibular sustemm

Front 67

malleus

Back 67

the "HAMMER"' the first of 3 ossicles

Front 68

kinesthesia

Back 68

perception of the body's own movement

Front 69

tip link

Back 69

an elastic filament that attavhes the tip of one cilium to the side of the adjacent culium

Front 70

cochlear nerve

Back 70

the branch of the auditory nerve that transmits auditory information from the cochlea to the brain

Front 71

cochlear nucleus

Back 71

one of a group of nuclei in the medulla that recieve auditory info from the cochlea

Front 72

olivocochlear bundle

Back 72

bundle of efferent axons that travel from the olivary complex of the medulla to the auditory hair cells on the chochlea

Front 73

pitch

Back 73

a perceptual dimension of sound; corresponds to the fundamental frequency

Front 74

Deiters cell

Back 74

a supporting cell found in the organ of the Corti; sustains the auditory hair cells.

Front 75

overtone

Back 75

the frequency of complex tones that occurs at multiples of the fundamental frequency

Front 76

tympanic membrane

Back 76

eardrum

Front 77

loudness

Back 77

a perceptual dimension of sound; corresponds with intensity

Front 78

hair cells

Back 78

the recptive cell of the auditory system

Front 79

tonotopic representation

Back 79

a topographically organized mapping of different frequencies of sound that are represented in a particular region of the brain

Front 80

Organ of Corti

Back 80

the sensory organ on the basilar membrane that contains the auditory hair cells

Front 81

superior olivary complex

Back 81

a group of nuclei in the medulla; involved with audtory funtions, incl localizatin of the source of sounds.

Front 82

ossicle

Back 82

one of the three bones of the middle ear

Front 83

cochlea

Back 83

the snail shaped structure of the inner ear that contains the audtitory transducing mechanisms

Front 84

phase difference

Back 84

the differnce in arrival times of sound waves at each of the eardrums

Front 85

stapes

Back 85

the "stirrups" the last of the three ossicles

Front 86

tectorial membrane

Back 86

a mamenbrane located above the basilar membrane; servers as a shelf against which cilia of the audotry hair cells move.

Front 87

incus

Back 87

the "anvil" the second of the three ossicles

Front 88

oval window

Back 88

and opening in the bone surroudning the cochlea that reveals a membrane, against which the baseplate of the stapes presses, transmitting soudn vibrations into the fluid withing the chochlea

Front 89

basilar membrane

Back 89

a membrane in the cochea of the inner ear; contains the organ of corti

Front 90

insertional plaque

Back 90

the point of attachment of a tip link to a cilium