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258 Cards in this Set

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What is the neuraxis?
An imaginary line drawn through the center of the length of the central nervous system, from the bottom of the spinal cord to the front of the forebrain.
What is the brainstems main purpose?
Regulates life-support.
Define anterior.
With respect to the central nervous system, located near or toward the head.
What is a sensory neuron?
A neuron that detects changes in the external or internal environment and sends information about these changes to the central nervous system.
Define posterior.
With respect to the central nervous system, located near or toward the tail.
What is blindsight?
The ability of a person who cannot see objects in his or her blind field to accurately reach for them while remaining unconscious of perceiving them; caused by damage to the "mammalian" visual system of the brain.
Define rostral.
"Toward the beak"; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction along the neuraxis toward the front of the face.
What is the brainstem made up of?
1) Medulla
2) Pons
3) Reticular Formation
Define caudal.
"Toward the tail"; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction along the neuraxis away from the front of the face.
What is the corpus callosum?
The largest commissure (place where two things are joined) of the brain, interconnecting the areas of the neocortex on each side of the brain.
Define dorasal.
"Toward the back"; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the top of the head or the back.
Olfactory
C.N. I
Type: Sensory
Smell
Assess: Hold soap, coffee, or alcohol pad under nose & ask to identify
Define ventral.
"Toward the belly"; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the bottom of the skull or the front surface of the body.
What is a split-brain operation?
Brain surgery occasionally performed to treat a form of epilepsy; surgeon cuts the corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres of the brain.
Define lateral.
Toward the side of the body, in a direction at right angles with the neuraxis and away from it.
What does the medulla do?
Vital involuntary functions (breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure, etc)
If damaged you will die.
Define medial.
Toward the neuraxis, away from the side of the body.
What are the cerebral hemispheres?
The two symmetrical halves of the brain; constitute the major part of the brain.
Define ipsilateral.
Located on the same side of the body.
What is motor neuron?
A neuron located within the central nervous system that controls the contraction of a muscle or the secretion of a gland.
Define contralateral.
Located on the opposite side of the body.
What does the reticular formation control?
Sleep, arousal, attention.
Related to (de) activation.
What is a cross section?
With respect to the central nervous system, a slice taken at right angles to the neuraxis.
Olfactory
C.N. I
Type: Sensory
Smell
Assess: Hold soap, coffee, or alcohol pad under nose & ask to identify
What is a frontal section?
A slice through the brain parallel to the forehead.
What does the cerebellum do?
Related to balance and movement.
Learning and development of motor tasks.
Builds neuronal connections.
What is a horizontal section?
A slice through the brain parallel to the ground.
What is an interneuron?
A neuron located entirely within the central nervous system.
What is a sagittal section?
A slice through the brain parallel to the neuraxis and perpendicular to the ground.
Where is the limbic system and what is it important for?
Above brainstem and surrounded by cortex.
Critical to motivation, emotion, and memory.
What is the midsagittal plane?
The plane through the neuraxis perpendicular to the ground; divides the brain into two symmetrical halves.
What is experimental ablation?
The research method in which the function of a part of the brain is inferred by observing the behaviors of an animal can no longer perform after that part is damaged.
What is the central nervous system (CNS)?
The brain and spinal cord.
Optic
II
Sensory
Visual
Assess: snellen chart; newspaper/magazine - have them read it; or ask what they see in their room
What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
The nerves and ganglia located outside the central nervous system.
What does the thalamus do?
-part of limbic system
"Sensory Relay Station"
When you sense information this goes to brain and a lot goes through here where it is then sent else where.
What is the function of the vertebral artery?
An artery whose branches serve the posterior region of the brain.
What is the central nervous system (CNS)?
That part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including the nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord.
What is the function of the internal carotid artery?
An artery whose branches serve the rostral and lateral portions of the brain.
What does the amygdala do?
-part of limbic system
"Aggression and Fear-Anxiety Center"
(Tumors on amygdala can cause very aggressive behavior)
What are the meninges (singular: meninx)?
The three layers of tissue that encase the central nervous system: the dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater.
Functions of the medulla; result of damage
Flow of information between brain and spinal cord

Coordinates swallow, cough, sneeze

Regulates breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure

Damage is often fatal
What is the dura mater?
The outermost of the meninges; tough, flexible, unstretchable.
What does the hippocampus control?
-part of limbic system
Memory formation
Involved with creating verbal and conscious memories.
What is the arachnoid membrane?
The middle layer of the meninges between the outer dura mater and inner pia mater. The subarachnoid space beneath the arachnoid membrane is filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions the brain.
What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
That part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including the nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord.
What is the pia mater?
The layer of the meninges adjacent to the surface of the brain.
What does the basal ganglia do?
-part of limbic system
Movement and via nucleus accumbens, reward.
Increasingly recognized for learning, movement, and reward.
What is the subarachnoid space?
The fluid-filled space between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater.
Oculomotor
III
Motor
Contracts eye muscles to control eye movements; constricts pupil; elevates eyelid.
Assess: use penlight to assess for PERRLA
What is the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
A clear fluid, similar to blood plasma, that fills the ventricular system of the brain and the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
What does the hypothalamus do?
-part of limbic system
Regulates temperature, hunger, activity of ANS, hormone release via pituitary, site of "pleasure center"
What is a ventricle?
One of the hollow spaces within the brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
What is the soma?
The cell body of a neuron, which containes the nucleus.
What is a lateral ventricle?
One of the two ventricles located in the center of the telencephalon.
Where is the motor cortex?
At the rear of the frontal lobe.
What is the third ventricle?
The ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon.
Optic
II
Sensory
Visual
Assess: snellen chart; newspaper/magazine - have them read it; or ask what they see in their room
What is the cerebral aqueduct?
A narrow tube interconnecting the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, located in the center of the mesencephalon.
What does the temporal lobe contain?
Auditory cortex -- hearing.
What is the fourth ventricle?
The ventricle located between the cerebellum and the dorsal pons, in the center of the metencephalon.
What is a dendrite?
A branched, treelike structure attached to the soma of a neuron; receives information from the terminal buttons of other neurons.
What is the choroid plexus?
The highly vascular tissue that protrudes into the ventricles and produces cerebrospinal fluid?
What does the parietal lobe contain?
Somatosensory cortex -- touch.
What is the arachnoid granulation?
Small projections of the arachnoid membrane through the dura mater into the superior sagittal sinus; CSF flows through them to be reabsorbed into the blood supply.
Trochlear
IV
Motor
Contracts one eye muscle to control inferomedial eye movement (below & center)
Assess: PERRLA/follow finger as you point down
What is the superior sagittal sinus?
A venous sinus located in the midline just dorsal to the brain, between the two cerebral hemispheres.
What does the occipital lobe contain?
Visual cortex -- vision.
What is obstructive hydrocephalus?
A condition in which all or some of the rain's ventricles are enlarged; caused by an obstruction that impedes the normal flow of CSF.
What is a synapse?
A junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron.
What is the forebrain?
The most rostral of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the telencephalon and diencephalon.
What does Broca's area do?
Language production and speaking (associated with motor cortex)
What is the cerebral hemisphere?
One of the two major portions of the forebrain, covered by the cerebral cortex.
What are 3 functions of the spinal cord?
1-It processes reflexes
2-It's the site for integration of EPSP and IPSP
3-It's a conduction pathway for sensory and motor nerve impulses
What is the subcortical region?
The region located within the brain, beneath the cortical surface.
What does Wernicke's Area do?
Language reception and understanding (associated with temporal lobe)
What is the cerebral cortex?
The outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres.
What is an axon?
The long, thin, cylindrical structure that conveys information from the soma of a neuron to its terminal buttons.
What is a sulcus (plural: sulci)?
A groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere, smaller than a fissure.
Trigeminal
V
Sensory & Motor
Carries impulse of pain, touch, & temperature from face to brain
(clenching & lateral jaw movements)
Assess: Clench teeth, Palpate temporal & masseter muscle, perform sharp/dull test on forehead, cheeks,& chin
What is a fissure?
A major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus.
What is the left side of the brain specialized in?
Language processing.
Noticing parts.
Verbal reasoning processes.
What is a gyrus (plural: gyri)?
A convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures.
What is a multipolar neuron?
A neuron with one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma.
What is the primary visual cortex?
The region of the cerebral cortex whose primary input is from the visual system.
What is the right side of the brain specialized in?
Spatial perception.
Perception of faces.
Larger units (wholes)
What is a calcarine fissure?
A fissure located in the occipital lobe on the medial surface of the brain; contains most of the primary visual cortex.
Oculomotor
III
Motor
Contracts eye muscles to control eye movements; constricts pupil; elevates eyelid.
Assess: use penlight to assess for PERRLA
What is the primary auditory cortex?
The region of the cerebral cortex whose primary input is from the auditory system.
What is a bipolar neuron?
A neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma.
What is the lateral fissure?
The fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes.
Abducens
VI
Motor
Lateral eye movements
Assess: positions test/follow finger or penlight with eyes, without moving head
What is the primary somatosensory cortex?
The region of the cerebral cortex whose primary input is from the somatosensory system.
What is an unipolar neuron?
A neuron with one axon attached to its soma; the axon divides, with one branch receiving sensory information and the other sending the information into the central nervous system.
What is the central sulcus?
The sulcus that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
Functions of the cerebellum; result of damage
Balance, posture, sensorimotor learning, attention shifting

Small cerebellum linked to autism

Damage can produce ataxia (slurred speech, tremor, loss of balance)
Sara Bellum is a southern belle who is always poised and balanced. She is adept at learning new motor skills but her attention shifts often.
What is the primary motor cortex?
The region of the cerebral cortex that contains neurons that control movements of skeletal muscles.
What is a terminal button?
The bud at the end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses with another neuron; sends information to that neuron.
What is the frontal lobe?
The anterior portion of the cerebral cortex, rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.
Facial
VII
Sensory & Motor
Taste on anterior 2/3 of tongue (sweet & salty); stimulates salivary glands & tears; smiling, frowning, & closing eyes
Assess: Smile, frown, raise eyebrows, puff out cheeks
What is the parietal lobe?
The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the frontal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.
What is a transmitter substance/neurotransmitter?
A chemical that is released by a terminal button; has an excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron.
What is the temporal lobe?
The region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occipital lobe and ventral to the parietal and frontal lobes.
Trochlear
IV
Motor
Contracts one eye muscle to control inferomedial eye movement (below & center)
Assess: PERRLA/follow finger as you point down
What is the occipital lobe?
The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes.
Acoustic/Vestibulocochlear
VIII
Sensory
Sensory fibers for hearing and balance
Assess: whisper test, weber test, rinne test
What is the sensory association cortex?
Those regions of the cerebral cortex that receive information from the regions of primary sensory cortex.
Where does the sensory neuron enter the spinal cord?
through the dorsal root
What is the motor association cortex?
The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor cortex.
Glossopharyngeal
IX
Sensory & Motor
Taste on posterior 3rd of tongue (sour & bitter) & sensory fibers of pharynx, elicits gag reflex; secretory fibers to parotid glands/swallowing movements
Assess: Tongue depressor, look at uvula & soft palate & say "AH"; warn client: touch depressor to pharnyx (gag); drink water
What is the prefrontal cortex?
The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association cortex.
Trigeminal
V
Sensory & Motor
Carries impulse of pain, touch, & temperature from face to brain
(clenching & lateral jaw movements)
Assess: Clench teeth, Palpate temporal & masseter muscle, perform sharp/dull test on forehead, cheeks,& chin
What is the corpus callosum?
The largest commissure of the brain, interconnecting the areas of neocortex on each side of the brain.
Vagus
X
Sensory & Motor
Sensations from throat, larynx, heart, lungs, bronchi, G.I. tract, & abdominal viscera; promotes swallowing, talking, & production of digestive juices
Assess: same as glossopharyngeal
What is the neocortex?
The phylogenetically newest cortex including the primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, and association cortex.
Function of pons
Connects the halves of the cerebellum and helps integrate movements in right and left side of body.
What is the limbic cortex?
The phylogenetically old cortex, located at the edge ("limbus") of the cerebral hemispheres; part of the limbic system.
Spinal Accessory
XI
Motor
Inner neck muscles (SCM,trapezius) that promote movement of shoulders & head rotation; some movement of larynx
Assess: shrug shoulders against resistance; turn head rt & lt against resistance
What is the cingulate gyrus?
A strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemispheres, just above the corpus callosum.
Abducens
VI
Motor
Lateral eye movements
Assess: positions test/follow finger or penlight with eyes, without moving head
What is the commissure?
A fiber bundle that interconnects corresponding regions on each side of the brain.
What is axoplasmic transport?
An active process by which substances are propelled along microtubules that run the length of the axon.
What is the limbic system?
A group of brain regions including the anterior thalamic nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, and parts of the hypothalamus, as well as their interconnecting fiber bundles.
Hypoglossal
XII
Motor
Innervates tongue muscle that promotes movement of food & talking
Assess: stick out tongue, move to rt & lt against depressor (look for tremors); have them say "L,T,D,N"
What is the hippocampus?
A forebrain structure of the temporal lobe, constituting an important part of the limbic system.
What is anterograde?
In a direction along an axon from the cell body toward the terminal buttons.
What is the amygdala?
A structure in the interior of the rostral temporal lobe, containing a set of nuclei; part of the limbic system.
Where does the motor neuron exit the spinal cord?
through the ventral root
What is the fornix?
A fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the brain, including the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus.
What is retrograde?
In a direction along an axon from the terminal buttons toward the cell body.
What are the mammillary bodies?
A protusin of the bottom of the brain at the posterior end of the hypothalamus, containing some hypothalamic nuclei.
Facial
VII
Sensory & Motor
Taste on anterior 2/3 of tongue (sweet & salty); stimulates salivary glands & tears; smiling, frowning, & closing eyes
Assess: Smile, frown, raise eyebrows, puff out cheeks
What are the basal ganglia?
A group of subcortical nuclei in the telencephalon, the caudate nucleus, the globus pallidus, and the putamen; important parts of the motor system.
What are the glia?
The supporting cells of the central nervous system.
What is the diencephalon?
A region of the forebrain surrounding the third ventricle; includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
Reticular formation functions
Respiration, cough, vomit, posture, locomotion, REM sleep
What is the thalamus?
The largest portion of the diencephalon, located abvoe the hypothalamus; contains nuclei that project information to specific regions of the cerebral cortex and receive information from it.
What is an astrocyte?
A glial cell that provides support for neurons of the central nervous system, provides nutrients and other substances, and regulates the chemical composition of the extracellular fluid.
What is a projection fiber?
An axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminals form synapses with neurons in another region.
Acoustic/Vestibulocochlear
VIII
Sensory
Sensory fibers for hearing and balance
Assess: whisper test, weber test, rinne test
What is a nucleus (plural: nuclei)?
An identifiable group of neural cell bodies in the central nervous system.
What are 3 protective structures of the spinal cord?
1-Bony vertebrae
2-Cerebral spinal fluid
3-Tough connective tissue meninges
What is the lateral geniculate nucleus?
A group of cell bodies within the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus that receives fibers from the retina nd projects fibers to the primary visual cortex.
What is an oligodendrocyte?
A type of glial cell in the central nervous sytem that forms myelin sheaths.
What is the medial geniculate nucleus?
A group of cell bodies within the medial geniculate body of the thalamus; receives fibers from the auditory system and projects fibers to the primary auditory cortex.
Glossopharyngeal
IX
Sensory & Motor
Taste on posterior 3rd of tongue (sour & bitter) & sensory fibers of pharynx, elicits gag reflex; secretory fibers to parotid glands/swallowing movements
Assess: Tongue depressor, look at uvula & soft palate & say "AH"; warn client: touch depressor to pharnyx (gag); drink water
What is the ventrolateral nucleus?
A nucleus of the thalamus that receives inputs from the cerebellum and sends axons to the primary motor cortex.
What is a myelin sheath?
A sheath that surrounds axons and insulates them, preventing messages from spreading between adjacent axons.
What is the hypothalamus?
The group of nuclei of the diencephalon situated beneath the thalamus; involved in regulation of the autonomic nervous system, control of the anterior and posterior pituitary glands, and integration of species-typical behaviors.
Reticular Activating System functions
Part of reticular formation

Consciousness, arousal, wakefulness

Screens sensory input especially during sleep and arouses executive parts of brain when warranted

Damage disrupts sleep and can produce permanent coma.
What is the optic chasm?
A cross-shaped connection between the optic nerves, located between the base of the brain, just anterior to the pituitary gland.
What is the node of Ranvier?
A naked portion of a myelinated axon, between adjacent oligodendroglia or Schwann cells.
What is the anterior pituitary gland?
The anterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland whose secretions are controlled by the hypothalamic hormones.
Vagus
X
Sensory & Motor
Sensations from throat, larynx, heart, lungs, bronchi, G.I. tract, & abdominal viscera; promotes swallowing, talking, & production of digestive juices
Assess: same as glossopharyngeal
What is a neurosecretory cell?
A neuron that secretes a hormone or hormonelike substance.
In what way does the CSF protect the spinal cord?
it cushions the spinal cord on the exterior and interior
What is the posterior pituitary gland?
The posterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland that contains hormone-secreting terminal buttons of axons whose cell bodies lie within the hypothalamus.
What is a Schwann cell?
A cell in the peripheral nervous system that is wrapped around a myelinated axon, providing one segment of its myelin sheath.
What is the midbrain?
The mesencephalon; the central of the three major divisions of the brain.
Spinal Accessory
XI
Motor
Inner neck muscles (SCM,trapezius) that promote movement of shoulders & head rotation; some movement of larynx
Assess: shrug shoulders against resistance; turn head rt & lt against resistance
What is the mesencephalon?
The midbrain; a region of the brain that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct; includes the tectum and the tegmentum.
What is the blood-brain barrier?
A semipermeable barrier produced by the cells in the walls of the capillaries in the brain.
What is the tectum?
The dorsal part of the midbrain; includes the superior and inferior colliculi.
Thalamus functions
Relay station transmitting all sensory information except smell to appropriate areas of the cortex; also motor activity, language, memory

Korsakoff Syndrome results from damage and involves both amnesias and confabulation
What are the superior colliculi?
Protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the visual system.
What is the area postrema?
A region of the medulla where the blood-brain barrier is weak; poisons can be detected there and can initiate vomiting.
What are the inferior colliculi?
Protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the auditory system.
Hypoglossal
XII
Motor
Innervates tongue muscle that promotes movement of food & talking
Assess: stick out tongue, move to rt & lt against depressor (look for tremors); have them say "L,T,D,N"
What is the brain stem?
The "stem" of the brain, from the medulla to the diencephalon, excluding the cerebellum.
the spinal meninges and the cranial meninges are or are not continuous with each other?
ARE
What is the tegmentum?
The ventral part of the midbrain; includes the periaqueductal gray matter, reticular formation, red nucleus, and substania nigra.
Hypothalamus functions
Hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, body temperature, movement, emotional reactions

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (circadian rhythm or biorhythm)is here and damage to it can cause SAD

Damage can cause intense laughter or rage
What is the reticular formation?
A large network of neurla tissue located in the central region of the brain stem, from the medulla to the diencephalon.
Parietal Lobe
Contains somatosensory cortex

Pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception, gustation

Damage disturbes spatial orientation, apraxia (skilled motor movement problem), somatosensory agnosia (tactile agnosia, asomatognosia, and anosognosia)

Lesion to right parietal lob: contralateral neglect

Lesion to left parietal lobe: ideational apraxia (can't carry out sequence of actions) ideomotor apraxia (can't obey simple motor command), and Gerstmann syndrome (finger agnosia, right-left confusion, agraphia, acalculia)
What is the periaqueductal gray matter?
The region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct; contains neural circuits involved in species-typical behaviors.
Name the 3 spinal meninges
1-Dura mater
2-Arachnoid mater
3-Pia mater
What is the red nucleus?
A large nucleus of the midbrain that receives inputs from the cerebellum and motor cortex and sends axons to motor neurons in the spinal cord.
What is the resting potential?
The membrane potential of a neuron when it is not being altered by excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials; approximately - 70 mV in the giant squid axon
What is the substantia nigra?
A darkly stained region of the tegmentum that contains neurons that communicate with the caudate nucleus and putamen in the basal ganglia.
What type of tissue is in the pia mater?
shiny and thin connective tissue
What is the hindbrain?
The most caudal of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the metencephalon and myelencephalon.
What is depolarization?
Reduction (toward zero) of the membrane potential of a cell from its normal resting potential.
What is the cerebellum?
A major part of the brain located dorsal to the pons, containing the two cerebellar hemispheres, covered with the cerebellar cortex; an important component of the motor system.
Basal ganglia functions
planning, organizing, coordinating voluntary movement; regulating amplitude and direction of motor actions; sensorimotor learning; physical expressions of emotion such as smiling

Damage can result in Huntington's, Parkinson's, and Tourette's, mania, depression, OCD, psychosis
What is the cerebellar cortex?
The cortex that covers the surface of the cerebellum.
What is hyperpolarization?
An increase in the membrane potential of a cell, relative to the normal resting potential.
What are the deep cerebellar nuclei?
Nuclei located within the cerebellar hemispheres; receive projections from the cerebellar cortex and send projections out of the cerebellum to other parts of the brain.
Temporal Lobe
Contains auditory cortex, Wernicke's area

Auditory sensation/perception; long-term declaratice memories

Damage causes auditory agnosia, auditory hallucinations, Wernicke's (receptive) aphasia; both amnesias.
What is the cerebellar peduncle?
One of three bundles of axons that attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal pons.
What is the action potential?
The brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along an axon.
What is the pons?
The region of the metencephalon rostral to the medulla, caudal to the midbrain, and ventral to the cerebellum.
What is the most superficial meningeal layer?
dura mater
What is the medulla oblongata?
The most caudal portion of the brain; located in the myelencephalon, immediately rostral to the spinal cord.
What is the threshold of excitation?
The value of the membrane potential that must be reached in order to produce an action potential.
What is the spinal cord?
The cord of nervous tissue that extends caudally from the medulla.
Define Subarachnoid space
Space between the arachnoid mater and pia mater that is filled with CSF
What is the spinal root.
A bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that occurs in pairs, which fuse and form a spinal nerve.
What is diffusion?
The movement of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration.
What is the cauda equina?
A bundle of spinal roots located caudal to the end of the spinal cord.
Limbic system
Contains amygdala and hippocampus

Primarily mediates emotions
What is a caudal block?
The anesthesia and paralysis of the lower part of the body produced by injection of a local anesthetic into the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the cauda equina.
Occipital Lobe
Contains visual cortex

Damage results in visual agnosia, visual hallucinations, cortical blindness

Left side damage: simultanagnosia (can't see >1 thing at a time)

Lesion at junction of occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes produces prosopagnosia (can't recognize familiar faces)
What is the dorsal root?
The spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory fibers.
What is an ion?
A charged molecule.
What is the ventral root?
The spinal root that continas outgoing (efferent) motor fibers.
What is the middle meningeal layer?
arachnoid mater
What is the spinal nerve?
A peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord.
What is a cation?
A positively charged ion.
What is an afferent axon?
An axon directed toward the central nervous system, conveying sensory information.
Amygdala
attaches emotions to memories, recall of emotionally-charged experiences; directs motivational and emotional activities; receives olfactory signals
What is the dorsal root ganglion?
A nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons.
What is an anion?
A negatively charged ion.
What is an efferent axon?
An axon directed away the central nervous system, conveying motor commands to muscles and glands.
What is the deepest meningeal layer?
pia mater
What is a cranial nerve?
A peripheral nerve attached directly to the brain?
Hippocampus
Processes spatial, visual, and verbal infromation and consolidates declarative memories (converts short-term to long-term).

Damage resultes in both amnesias
What is the vagus nerve?
The largest of the cranial nerves, conveying efferent fibers of the parasympathetic division of autonomic nervous system to organs of the thoracic and abdominal activities.
What is the dura mater's tissue composed of?
dense irregular connective tissue
What is the olfactory bulb?
The protusion at the end of the olfactory nerve; receives input from the olfactory receptors.
Frontal Lobe
Motor, Premotor, Prefrontal areas

Control of voluntary movements, Broca's area (speech production), emotion, memory, self-awareness, executive functions.
What is the somatic nervous system?
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the movement of skeletal muscles or transmits somatosensory information to the central nervous system.
What is a sodium-potassium transporter?
A protein found in the membrane of all cells that extrude sodium ions from and transports potassium ions into the cell.
What is the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?
The portion of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's vegetative functions.
Which meningeal layer has an avascular covering?
arachnoid mater
What is the sympathetic division?
The portion of the autonomic nervous system that controls functions that accompany arousal and expenditure of energy.
What is the all-or-none law?
The principle that once an action potential is triggered in an axon, it is propagated, without decrement, to the end of the fiber.
What are the spinal sympathetic ganglia?
Sympathetic ganglia either adjacent to the spinal cord in the sympathetic chain or located in the abdominal cavity.
What is the rate law?
The principle that variations in the intensity of a stimulus or other information being transmitted in an axon are represented by variations in the rate at which that axon fires.
What is the sympathetic ganglion chain?
One of a pair of groups of sympathetic ganglia that lie ventrolateral to the vertebral column.
What are cable properties?
The passive conduction of electrical current, in a decremental fashion, down the length of an axon.
What is a preganglionic neuron?
The efferent neuron of the autonomic nervous system whose cell body is located in a cranial nerve nucleus or in the intermediate horn of the spinal gray matter and whose terminal buttons synapse on postganglionic neurons in the autonmic ganglia.
What is saltatory conduction?
Conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The action potential "jumps" from one node of Ranvier to the next.
What is a postganglionic neuron?
Neurons of the autonomic nervous system that form synapses directly with their target organ.
What is postsynaptic potential?
Alterations in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by liberation of transmitter substance at the synapse.
What is the adrenal medulla?
The inner portion of the adrenal gland, located atop the kidney, controlled by sympathetic nerve fibers; secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine.
What is a target cell?
The type of cell that is directly affected by a hormone or nerve fiber?
What is the parasympathetic division?
The portion of the autonomic nervous system that control functions that occur during a relaxed state.
What is a binding site?
The location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds.
What is a ligand?
A chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor.
What is a dendritic spine?
A small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal button from another uenuron forms a synapse.
What is the presynaptic membrane?
The membrane of a terminal button that lies adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane.
What is the postsynaptic membrane?
The cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message.
What is the synaptic cleft?
The space between the presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic membrane.
What is a synaptic vesicle?
A small, hollow, beadlike structure found in terminal buttons; contains molecules of a neurotransmitter.
What is the release zone?
A region of the interior of the postsynaptic membrane of the synapse to which synaptic vesicles attach and release their neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
What is a postsynaptic receptor?
A receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter.
What is a metabotropic receptor?
A receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter; activates an enzyme that begins a series of events that opens an ion channel elsewhere in the membranes of the cell when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.
What is a G protein?
A protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor; conveys messages to other molecules when a ligand binds with and activates the receptor.
What is a second messenger?
A chemical produced when a G protein activates an enzyme; carries a signal that results in the opening of the ion channel or causes other events to occur in the cell.
What is reuptake?
The reentry of a transmitter substance just liberated by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.
What is enzymatic deactivation?
The destruction of a transmitter substance by an enzyme after its release - for example, the destruction of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase.
What is acetylcholine (ACh)
A neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord, and parts of the peripheral nervous system; response for muscular contraction.
What is acetylcholinesterase (AChE)?
The enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon after it is liberated by the terminal buttons, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.
What is neural integration?
The process by which inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials summate and control the rate of firing of a neuron.
What is an autoreceptor?
A receptor molecule located on a neuron that responds to the neurotransmitter relased by that neuron.
What is presynaptic inhibition?
The action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; reduces the amount of neurotransmitter relased by the postsynaptic terminal button.
What is presynaptic facilitation?
The action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synpase; increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.
What is a gap junction?
A special junction between cells that permits direct communication by means of electrical coupling.