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335 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Two types of respiration: |
Internal and External
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Define internal respiration
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[cellular respiration] O2 use in mitochondria in ATP production, resulting in CO2 as waste |
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Define external respiration |
Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the outside air and body tissues
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What is the main function of the respiratory system? |
Gas exchange between environment and cells of body (Internal and external respiration) |
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4 process of external respiration: |
1. Pulmonary ventilation: inspiration and expiration 2. Exchange of O2 and CO2 between lungs and blood 3. Transportation of O2 and CO2 by blood 4. Exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood and cells by diffusion |
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Where are the four parts of the external respiration process? |
Look over this. |
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Name some other functions of the respiratory system: |
1. Vocalization 2. Defense against pathogens 3. Help in maintaining body pH 4. Dissipating water and heat |
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Vocalization |
Vocal cords |
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Defense against pathogens |
Cilia, mucus, macrophages |
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Help in maintaining body pH |
Selectie loss or retention of CO2 |
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Dissipating water and heat |
Loss through breathing (unavoidable consequence) |
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What are the 2 functions of the Pleural fluid? |
1. Allow movement of lungs (reduces friction) 2. Hold lungs against thoracic wall |
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What is a surfactent cell? |
Coats the aveolar cell to keep from being roughed up |
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What are the patterns to airways in the respiratory system? |
As division goes up, diameter decreases, while number of air ways increases as does the cross sectional area |
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What is the main exchange body structure? |
Aveoli sacs |
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Cilia causes ______________ to move upwards. |
Mucus |
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Study cilia |
Cilia |
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This will be grey scale. Distinguish parts. |
...
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Why do we hiccup? |
Sharp in take of air due to a deep breath contraction. (Hiccup is from sharp closure of the organ) |
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At rest, intra-aveolar pressure = ? |
Atmospheric pressure |
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Air flow into and out of lungs driven by pressure gradients resulting from changes in lung volume: |
Boyles Law |
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Boyles Law: |
For a given quantity of gas in a container, pressure inversely related to volume |
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Put boyles law into easier words: |
When container (lungs) volume expands, gas (air) pressure decreases (< atmospheric pressure), and when container volume shrinks, gas pressure increases (>atmospheric pressure) |
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Two physical factors influence pulmonary ventilation: |
1. Air pressure gradient between atmosphere and alveoli (Gradient goes up = Ventilation goes up) 2. Airway resistance (Resistance goes down = ventilation goes up) |
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Physical _____________ increase resistance. |
obstructions |
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Bronchoconstriction |
Parasympathetic NS, paracrines (eg histamine, leukotriene) |
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Bronchodilation |
Epinephrine, paracrines (eg CO2) |
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Regulation of Pulmonary Ventilation (4 steps) |
1. Respiratory neurons in medulla oblongata control inspiration and expiration
2. Respiratory neurons in pons modulate ventilation 3. Rhythmic breathing pattern due to spontaneously discharging neurons (respiratory pacemakers?) --> unstable membrane potentials, similar to SA, AV nodes of the hearts 4. Ventilation can be modulated by higher brain...... |
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The right recurrent larynegeal nerve circumflexes the first part of the right ________________ artery. |
Subclavian |
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The left recurrent laryngeal nerve circumflexes the _____________. |
Aortic |
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Just in case you didnt know.. |
... |
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Three components of the cardiovascular system |
Blood Blood vessels Heart |
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Functions of the components of the cardiovascular system |
Efficiently DISTRIBUTE oxygen, nutrients, etc., to body's cells REMOVE wastes from these same cells |
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Transport of materials in the cardiovascular system: Materials entering the body |
Oxygen Nutrients and water |
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Transport of materials in the cardiovascular system: Materials moved from cell to cell |
Wastes Immune cells, antibodies, clotting proteins Hormones Stored nutrients |
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Transport of materials in the cardiovascular system: Materials leaving the body |
Metabolic wastes Heat Carbon dioxide |
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What is the main way we get rid of metabolic waste? |
Metabolic wastes |
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What is the heart? |
Force-generating organ that propels blood throughout blood vessels |
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What tissue surrounds the heart? What does the tissue do? |
Adipose tissue; supports, and provides insulation |
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How many chambers does the heart have? Name them |
4 very small chambers; left and right ventrical and left and right atrium |
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This WILL be on the test |
Study it |
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What is a major difference between the right and left ventricle? |
The left ventricle has a lot thicker cardiac muscle |
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Study anatomy and the blood flow |
obvi |
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Why does the left ventricle have thick cardiac muscle? |
In order to pump blood throughout the entire body through the aorta and into ascending and descending vessels |
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Blood circulation through the body is essentially one-way through two circuits: |
1. Pulmonary circuit 2. Systematic circuit |
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Pulmonary circuit is blood flow between what and what? |
heart and lungs |
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Systematic circuit is blood flow between what and what? |
Heart and rest of the body |
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Right side of the heart receives what from systematic circuit then sends it where? |
"deoxygenated" blood Pulmonary circuit |
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Left side of heart receives what from pulmonary circuit and sends it where? |
oxygenated blood Systematic circuit |
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What does "deoxygenated" really mean? |
Less oxygenated (99% vs 75% O2 satuation); but our cells can't get to it anyways so it might as well be 0% |
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Blood that went through the left ventricle and is going back to the pulmonary circuit is what percentage of saturation? |
99% |
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Blood that goes through the entire systematic circuit and is going into the pulmonary system has what percentage of saturation? |
75% |
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What is the necessary range of 02 saturation in order to receive the oxygen in the cells? |
76% to 99% |
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The pulmonary circuit is oxygenated. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE |
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When you are developing, you are not using your ______________ circuit. |
Pulmonary |
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Just before birth, what happens to the foramen ovale? |
Begins to close off |
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What does the foramen ovale become after birth? |
Fossa Ovalis
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Name the two bypasses for the heart during fetal development |
Foramen Ovale Arterial Duct |
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What does the arterial duct become after birth? When after birth? |
Arterial ligament; infancy |
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Where do most congenital heart defects happen? |
During the bypass conversion during fetal development |
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Cardiac muscle is ___________. What does this mean? |
myogenic; contractions are the result of signals generated by the muscle itself (not external signals from the NS) |
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Define Autorhythmicity |
The ability to spontaneously produce action potential, in a periodic, repeatable manner |
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_____________________ (pacemakers) in cardiac muscle synchronize the contractile cells in cardiac muscle. |
Autorhythmic cells |
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Pacemaker cells are in two specific heart regions: |
Sinoatrial (SA) node Atrioventricular (AV) node |
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What is the functional unit of contraction? |
Sarcomere |
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Cardiac muscle contractions operate similarly to those of what? |
the skeletal muscle |
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What are the important differences between the cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle when it comes to heart activity? |
Communication between cells by gap junctions Long duration action potentials (2 vs 300 msec); therefore no summation of muscle contractions (prevents tetanus --> prolonged, sustained contraction) |
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Why does the plateau happen in contractile cells? |
Because of calcium; when calcium channels open, calcium pours into the cell and which prolongs the polarized state |
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pull this image up and learn |
it sucks i know |
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Depolarization and contraction in the heart |
Depolarization top down in the atria, followed by contraction top down and then we have depolarization bottom up in the ventricles, followed by contraction bottom up. This allows the process to push the blood where it needs to go |
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SA node is primary regulator of heartbeat. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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SA node generates ________________________ more frequently. |
Action potentials |
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What happens if the AV node slows down or fails? |
AV node is "emergency backup" |
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AV node in ______________ period. |
refractory |
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What is Einthovens Triangle |
You can record the electronegativity of the heart on the left and right wrist and on the ankle to record the electrical pattern of heart activity. |
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Why are we able to hear the heart on our wrists and such? |
Synchronized heart activity Conductivity of body fluids |
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What is the difference between 12 leads and 3 leads when listening to heart activity? |
12 leads allows you to hear more or interpret more (HD) vs a black and white TV interpretation |
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What are the two sinus arrhythmias? |
Tachycardia (with inverted T wave) Bradycardia |
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What is approx. the resting heart? |
60 to 100 beats/ minute |
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Define "A-Fib" |
SA node failure; associated with 15-25% of strokes due to blood clots |
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Define "V-Fib" |
Loss of ventricle ability to pump blood - VERY serious - death can occur in minutes |
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Cardiac arrest |
Sudden loss of regular heartbeat (V Fib) Loss of consciousness Without intervention, death within minutes |
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What is the number one factor to prevent death in the case of a cardiac arrest? |
Time
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What is the medical name for heart attack? |
Myocardial infraction |
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Heart attack |
Inadequate O2 supply to heart muscle Often preceded by referred pain Leads to death if untreated |
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Heart attacks are similar to Cardiac arrest in that they needed to be treated within minutes or death follows. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; heart attack cases usually have a little more time for medical intervention |
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Define Cardiac Cycle |
All events associated with the flow of blood through the heart during a single heartbeat |
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Define heartbeat |
One complete cycle of atrial and ventricular contraction and relaxation |
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Period of cardiac muscle contraction. What is this defining? |
Systole |
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Define Diastole |
Period of cardiac muscle relaxation |
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Systole and diastole involve what two parts of the heart? |
Atria and ventricles |
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Define heart rate |
Number of ventricular contractions per minute |
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What is the resting average heart rate? |
70 beats/min |
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Define Strokes Volume |
Amount of blood pumped per ventricular contraction |
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What is the resting average stroke volume? |
70 mL |
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Heart rate X stroke volume What does this calculate? |
Cardiac output |
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What affects cardiac output? |
Changes in heart rate Changes in stroke volume |
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Changes in heart rate are initiated by what and modulated by what? |
SA node (autorhythmic cells); modulated by neural and hormonal input |
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Neural modulation: autonomic NS |
Sympathetic NS increases heart rate (secretes norepinephrine) Parasymathetic NS decreases heart rate (secretes acetylcholine) |
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Sympathetic NS increases heart rate. What does it secrete? |
Norepinephrine |
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Parasympathetic NS decreases heart rate. What does it secrete? |
Acetylcholine |
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Hormonal modulation |
Epinephrine secreted by adrenal medulla increases heart rate (adrenal sympathetic pathway) |
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Where are the neural/hormonal effects in the graph for a pacemaker cell? |
Linear increasing line before the threshold |
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Changes in stroke volume |
More complex regulation than for heart rate Largely depends on ventricular contractility |
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Changes in stroke volume largely depend on what? |
Ventricular contractility |
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Define ventricular contractility |
Force with which the ventricles contract; depends on end-diastolic volume |
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Stroke volume, like heart rate, is affected by: |
Sympathetic NS (NOT parasympathetic) Endocrine system (epinephrine) |
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Define transcription factor |
protein that turns on/off other genes |
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Transcription factors are found in specific animals with the same timing/activity levels. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; different timing/activity levels |
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Are there mutations in a four chamber heart? |
Congenital defect in ventricular septum |
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Each side of the heart functions as an independent ___________. |
pump |
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Where does exchange between the blood and cells takes place at? |
The capillaries |
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What do the systematic veins serve as? |
An expendable volume reservoir |
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What is the site of variable resistance? |
The arterioles |
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What are the elastic systematic arteries? |
A pressure reservoir that maintains blood flow during ventricular relaxation |
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Blood vessels are classified by: |
Direction of blood flow Size |
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What is present in ALL blood vessels? |
The lumen |
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What is the lumen? What is it lined by? |
The hollow inside; blood flows through here Epithelial tissue |
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What are the larger blood vessels protected in? |
Deeper tissue
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What do arteries and arterioles do? |
Conduct blood away from the heart |
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What is closest to the heart? |
Arteries |
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Because the arteries are closest to the heart, what do they have in order to handle this? |
Large amounts of elastic and fibrous connective tissue Large amounts of smooth muscle Can withstand high blood pressures |
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Volume varies with contraction and relaxation for arteries. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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Arterioles are larger than arteries. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; smaller |
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Arterioles can move blood from _____________ to _____________. |
Arteries to capillaries |
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Arterioles contain little of what tissue and a large amount of what tissue? |
little connective tissue; a lot of the circular smooth muscle |
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Circular smooth muscle and arterioles |
Constricts to close, relaxes to open them Occurs after a meal Contributes to body temperature homeostasis |
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Exchange occurs here... Where is here? |
Capillaries |
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Smallest and most numerous blood vessels? |
Capillaries |
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The capillaries have no muscle or connective tissue. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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What do the capillaries include? |
Consist of lumen formed by epithelial tissue; single cell layer thick - Simple structure allows exchange of materials (nutrients, wastes) between cells and blood |
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Capillary density is related to the ______________ activity of that part of the body. |
Metabolic |
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Where is capillary density lowest? |
Cartilage, subcutaneous tissue |
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Where is capillary density highest? |
Muscles, glands |
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Name two types of capillaries |
Continuous Fenestrated |
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Continuous capillaries |
Endothelial cels joined with leaky junctions Found in muscle, connective tissue, neural tissue |
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Fenestrated capillaries |
Large pores Found in kidneys, intestines (or anywhere with high volume of transfer) |
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What do capillaries do with fluid? Where does the fluid go? |
lose fluid; lymphatic system gets that fluid back to the circulatory system |
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Veins and venules do what? |
Conduct blood to the heart |
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Venules are _______________ than veins. |
Smaller; not visible to the naked eye |
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What do venules do? |
Transport blood from capillaries to veins |
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Do venules contain little or a lot of connective tissue and smooth muscle? |
little |
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As in capillaries, some exchange with occurs in venules. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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Define veins |
Large lumens (thin walls); less connective tissue and smooth muscle than arteries |
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What is the blood pressure like in veins? |
Comparatively lower blood pressure than in arteries - These vessels are the farthest away from the pumping heart |
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_______________ veins (outside thoracic cavity) contain one-way valves. |
Peripheral - Adaptation for low pressure; prevents backflow |
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What are the two lines pointing at? |
Artery Vein |
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Study this |
Its stuff we have already gone over, this is just graph form |
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The fluid that circulates in the cardiovascular system. What is this defining? |
Blood |
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What is a huge component of blood? |
Plasma; little over half (55%) |
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92% of plasma is what? |
Water |
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In addition to the plasma, what is found? |
Ions, organic molecules, trace elements, vitamins, gases |
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45% of blood is what? |
Cellular elements |
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What are cellular elements referring to? |
Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets |
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Why are platelets important? |
To help with clotting |
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Most abundant cells in blood? |
Red blood cells
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Why are erythrocytes unique? |
They lack nuclei, mitochondria, ribosomes |
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What do you not find in red blood cells and erythrocytes? |
Organelles associated with metabolism, eg protein synthesis |
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What is the primary function of erythrocytes? |
To transport oxygen and CO2; accomplished with the iron-based protein hemoglobin |
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The heme groups carry _________. |
O2 |
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Each hemoglobin molecule can carry how many O2 molecules? |
4 |
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Iron is necessary to make what? |
Heme groups |
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A hemoglobin molecule is composed of what? |
Four protein globin chains, each centered around a heme group. In most adult hemoglobin, there are two alpha chains and two beta chains |
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Each heme group consists of a ________________ ring with an iron atom in the center. |
porphyrin |
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What are the only functional cells in circulation? |
Leukocytes |
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What are leukocytes involved in? |
Immune responses |
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List the jobs of leukocytes |
Recognize pathogens Make antibodies Destroy pathogens Cause inflammation |
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Define platelets |
Fragments of bone marrow cells (megakaryocytes) that have broken off |
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Are platelets smaller or bigger than erythrocytes? |
Smaller |
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Platelets are important in what? |
Blood clot information |
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What are megakaryocytes? |
Giant cells with multiple copies of DNA in the nucleus |
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The edges of the megakaryocyte break off to form cell fragments called ______________. |
Platelets |
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Inactive platelets are small _____________ cell fragments. |
disklike |
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Activated platelets develop what? |
A spiky outer surface and adhere to each other other |
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What does thrombus mean? |
Blood clot |
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Define Hemostasis |
Thrombus (blood clot) formation |
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Define Vasocontriction |
The vessel constricts a little from paracrine release - eg cAMP Damaged cells release chemicals to tell neighboring cells to contact --> less blood flow, less blood loss |
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Platelet plug |
Inactive platelets become active platelets, clog vessel wall |
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What are the 3 parts of hemostasis? |
Vasoconstriction Platelet plug Coagulation Vessel repair |
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Coagulation |
Clot formation Fibrinogen --> fibrin (via enzyme thrombin) Need anticoagulants to help prevent infarction |
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Define infarction |
Tissue deprived of blood by inappropriate clot |
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Vessel repair |
Clot dissolves via plasmin |
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What does this represent? |
Coagulation cascade |
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In the coagulation cascade, what two pathways come together to create the common pathway? |
Intrinsic and Extrinsic pathways |
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Extrinsic pathway: |
Activated by external trauma that causes blood to escape from the vascular system Quicker than intrinsic Involves factor VII |
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Intrinsic Pathway: |
Activated by trauma inside the vascular system, and it activated by platelets, exposed endothelium, chemicals, or collagen. Slower than extrinsic pathway, but more important. Involves factors XII, XI, IX, VIII |
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Whales and dolphins lack which factor? Clot? |
XII; yes |
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What do pufferfish lack? Clot? |
Lack intrinsic pathway; yes |
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What do lobsters lack? Clot? |
Many steps in the clotting process; yes |
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In the coagulation process, lobsters, whales and pufferfish have issues do to the lacking factors. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; they have no issues |
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Define cooption |
When a feature that evolved under one set of conditions becomes used for additional or different purposes |
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Clotting response uses what? |
cAMP and proteases |
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What is cAMP for? |
Smooth muscle contraction |
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What are proteases used for? |
Clotting |
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Characteristics of cucumbers... |
No blood clotting, but produce fibrinogen Separate from vertebrates for at least 500 million years |
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Rhesus (Rh) factor |
Can be present or absent Prenatal testing |
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Define antigen |
Substance that triggers immune response |
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What are the two main ways to categorize blood type? |
Rh O, A, B or AB |
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What is the most common blood type in NA? and what about Rh? |
O; Rh+ |
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What is considered the universal donor? |
O- |
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What is the least common blood type? |
AB- |
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What is the universal recipient? |
AB+ |
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What does immunology study? |
Physiological defenses by which the body (host) distinguishes self from non self |
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Three main functions of the immune system: |
Protection against disease causing invaders (pathogens) Isolate or remove non-microbial foreign substances (includes organic and inorganic organisms) Recognize or remove abnormal cells (eg cancerous cells) |
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When it goes wrong (pathologies): |
Incorrect response: autoimmune diseases Overreactive response: allergies No response: immunodeficiencies |
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Incorrect response: |
Failure to distinguish self from non self eg. type 1 diabetes |
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Overreactive response |
Response out of proportion to threat posed Annoying to life-threatening |
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No response of immune system |
Primary: genetic defect Acquired: infection |
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Two classes of pathogens are of primary health concern in US: |
Viruses Bacteria |
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Define viruses |
Nucleic acids (RNA) surrounded by a protein coat Dependent on host cells for replication |
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Define bacteria |
Outnumber human cells in body 20:1, most are harmless, some are essential for our health Most can reproduce outside a host |
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Malaria: |
Protozoan parasite develops in mosquito Transmitted during blood meal Goes into the blood stream Invades and reproduces in liver |
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Lymphatic Filariasis or Elphantiasis |
Tropical disease Initial infection usually in childhood Filarial worms (nematodes) from mosquitos |
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1st layer of defense is designed to keep pathogens out of the internal environment: |
Physical barriers Chemical barriers Behavioral barriers |
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If the first layer of defense fails, what takes over? |
Immune response |
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Give examples of physical barriers |
Skin, nasal hairs, muscous linings, ciliated epithelium |
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Give examples of chemical barriers |
Lysozyme, acidity, lactoferrin |
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Give examples of behavioral barriers |
Sneezing, coughing, washing |
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What does the immune system compose of? |
A diverse collection of cells found in blood, lymph, and tissues throughout the body |
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Functions of Neurophil cells |
Ingest and destroy invaders that are circulating in the blood |
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Monocytes and Macrophages are common in blood. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; common in tissue |
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Where are Lymphocytes and Plasma cells most common? |
Lymphoid tissue |
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What function d Monocytes and Macrophages have? |
Ingest and destroy invaders in tissues Antigen presentation |
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B lymphocytes include what cells? |
Plasma cells Memory cells |
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T lymphocytes include what cells? |
Cytotoxic T cells Helper T cells |
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Name the subtypes for Lymphocytes and Plasma cells |
B lymphocytes T lymphocytes Natural killer cells |
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B lymphocytes come from where? Why? |
Bone marrow for antibody production |
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T lymphocytes come from where? Why? |
Thymus gland for regulation or intracellular immunity |
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Where do NK cells come from and why? |
Bone marrow, intracellular immunity, tumors |
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Primary lymphoid tissues: |
Thymus gland Bone marrow |
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Secondary lymphoid tissues: |
Encapsulated Unenccapsulated (diffuse) |
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Characteristics of the Lymphatic System |
Passive Flow One-way valves Returns to venous circulation at right and left lymph ducts |
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Name two diffuse lymphoid tissues |
Tonsils Gut associated lymphoid tissue |
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Immune cells are positioned to detect/intercept ____________. |
Pathogens |
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What is this a picture of? Study the illustration |
Lymph node artery and vein |
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What does it mean when your lymph node artery is swollen? |
Have or are fighting an infection |
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Give examples of encapsulated lymphoid tissues |
Spleen Lymph nodes |
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Give examples of unencapsulated lymphoid tissues |
GALT Tonsils Other tissues in contact with external environment |
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Name three of the main immune cells we talked about |
Neutrophil Macrophage/Monocyte Lymphocyte |
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Two general types of immune response |
Innate (non-specific) immunity Acquired (specific) immunity |
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Acquired immunity is present from birth. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; Innate immunity is present from birth |
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Innate immunity: |
Defense against pathogens Protects against foreign substances or cells without recognizing specific identities |
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Aquired immunity: |
Body recognizes particular pathogen and selectively reacts to it |
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Name two types of Acquired immunity |
Active and Passive |
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Define Active immunity |
Body exposed to pathogen; creates own antibodies |
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Define passive immunity |
Acquire antibodies made by another organism |
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Provide examples of Innate immune response |
Phagocytosis - Phagocytes = macrophages, neutrophils Inflammation |
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What is this an image of? |
Phagocyte |
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Three functions of inflammation |
Attract immune cells Produce physical barrier Promote tissue repair |
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What is inflammation initiated by? |
Cytokines |
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What is the main chemical in the biological response of inflammation? |
Histamine |
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What does histamine do? |
Opens capillary pores Useful for fighting infection Unfortunate consequence of allergies |
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3 stages of acquired immunity: |
1. Recognition of an antigen by lymphocytes. 2. Lymphocyte activation and proliferation 3. Attacks on antigen-bearing bodies by activated lymphocytes and their secretions |
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Born with a lot of different pathogen-specific ________________________. |
B-lymphocytes |
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First infection causes clonal expansion of B cell: |
Effector cells (plasma cells) Memory cells |
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Effector cells |
Fight infection and are short-livedM |
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Memory cells |
Long-lived and produce secondary response |
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The primary responses takes about how long to pas through? |
between 1 and 2 weeks |
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The primary response is the benefit. Not the secondary response. |
TRUE OR FALSE; secondary is the benefit |
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Flu shot - Active or passive? |
Active |
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Define Anti-body |
Work against foreign bodies by binding to antigens --> also called immunoglobulin (Ig) |
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What are antibodies produced by? |
B lymphcytes (Plasma cells) |
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What does Ig stand for? |
Antibody/Immunoglobulin |
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What are the five classes of antibodies? |
IgG, IgA, IgE, IgM, IgD |
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IgG |
Comprise of 75% of antibodies found in blood plasma; made in secondary immune response; cross placenta |
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IgA |
Found in external secretions (eg saliva, tears, breast milk) |
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IgE |
Gut parasites, allergic responses; can cause histamine release |
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IgM |
Involved in primary immune reponses & blood group antigens |
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IgD |
Associated with IgM's, but role unclear |
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Name the two regions of Antibodies. Which is on top and which is on bottom? |
Fab (top) - location of binding sites Fc region (bottom) - determines Ig class |
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Describe results of "Sweaty Tshirt study" |
Women tend to "prefer" men with MHC most different from theirs. Benefit? Likely increased pathogen resistance in offspring |
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Function of the Kidneys |
Removal of wastes - eg urine, uric acid -- metabolic wastes Water and ion homeostasis |
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Water and homeostasis |
Regulation of extracellular fluid volume Osmolarity Ion balance/Electrolytes ph (acid-base balance) Hormone production/regulation |
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Name some hormones that are produced/regulated by water and ion homeostasis in the kidneys |
Erythropoietin (EPO) Calcitriol (Vitamin D3) Renin (enzyme) |
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What hormone increases red blood cell production? |
Erythropoietin |
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What does Calcitriol do?
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Ca++ balance |
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What does renin do? |
Aldosterone regulation (Na+ balance) |
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What is this an image of? |
Antibody |
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What glands are associated with the kidneys? |
Adrenal glands |
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One of the biggest components of the kidneys is the _____________. |
Nephron |
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How many nephrons per kidney? |
About 1 million |
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Nephrons are ___________ elements that are surrounded by ________________ elements. |
Tubular vascular |
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Each nephron has two ________________ and two sets of _________________ associated with it. |
arterioles capillaries |
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Why are the efferent and afferent arterioles important? |
Allows for control of secretion and movement of fluid |
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What is in the Bowman's capsule? |
Afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole |
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Portal system in the kidneys |
2 capillary networks directly connected by blood vessel(s) |
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anatomy of kidney |
top one |
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What is this an image of? |
Nephron |
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Memorize |
... |
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Define filtration |
Movement of fluid, solutes from blood (arterioles) to lumen of nephron (Bowman's capsule) Passive and selective |
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What four processes are happening in the kidneys that are all important in regulating water and ion homeostasis? |
Filtration Reabsorption Secretion Excretion |
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Where is filtration occuring? |
Bowman's capsule |
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Of the 180 L/day filtered into the kidneys, only ________ L of urine per day is pushed out. |
1.5 |
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Define reabsorption |
Movement of fluid, solutes from lumen of nephron (mostly proximal tubule) back to the blood (pertibular capillaries) Passive or active, selective |
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What is the fundamental principle of filtration and reabsorption? |
Filter everything [but not all at once], reabsorb selectively |
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Define secretion |
Movement of fluid, solutes from blood (peritubular capillaries) back to lumen of nephron (mostly in proximal tubule) Active and selective |
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End product of -C = urine --> leaves nephron (collecting duct) through ureter to bladder; it is passive. What is this defining? |
Excretion |
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What is mostly completed once we leave the proximal tubule of the nephron? |
Done with largest quantity of fluid and solute movement that we are going to have |
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What happens once we leave the proximal tubule? |
Fine tuning |
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Know the arrows and the movement |
Bulk and fine tuning |
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How exactly do we filter everything? |
Filtration fraction |
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What is the filtration fraction? |
The amount we are filtering at one time, which is often 20% |
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What is this showing? |
Filtration fraction |
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Define Micturition |
Urination |
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What sphincter is passively contracted and what sphincter stays contracted? |
Internal External |
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Internal sphincter uses what muscle? |
Smooth |
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External sphincter uses what muscle? |
Skeletal |
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What are the steps of Micturition? |
1. Stretch receptors fire 2. Parasympathetic neurons fire. Motor neurons stop firing. 3. Smooth muscle contracts. Internal sphincter is passively pulled open. External sphincter relaxes. |
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Water and Ion homestasis involves.... |
Cardiovascular system Respiratory system Kidneys Behavior |
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How is the cardiovascular system involved with water and ion homeostasis? |
Cardiac output Vasoconstriction/dilation (Quick [neural]) |
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How is the respiratory system involved with water and ion homeostasis? |
CO2 loss/retention (Quick [neural]) |
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How are the kidneys involved with water and ion homeostasis? |
H2O, Na+ (Slow [endocrine pathway primarily]) |
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How is behavior involved with water and ion homeostasis? |
"thirst," "salt appetite" |
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The lungs arent specifically involved with Blood pressure and volume, they are more involved with what? |
Acid-base balance (pH homeostasis) |
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Define Osmolarity |
# of particles (free ions and molecules) per liter of water |
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Only ______________ is reabsorbed in the Loop of Henle. |
water |
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Fluid leaving the proximal tubule becomes what? |
Progressively more concentrated in the descending limb |
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Where is water reabsorbed in the nephron? |
Distal tubule |
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What happens in the ascending part of the loop of henle? |
Ions reabsorbed but no water |
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Countercurrent exchange |
Fluid movement in close proximity but opposite directions |
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memorize |
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you never know |
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What hormone do we use for water regulation? |
Vasopressin; the more vasopressin in our blood, the more water reabsorption and therefore a more concentrated urine. |
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Where does Vasopressin come from? |
Neurons in the brain; neurons that start in the hypothalamus and then are stored in the posterior pituitary which is where it is also released |
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What do aquiporins do? |
Allow water to pass through |
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What three things trigger vasopressin synthesis and release? |
Decreased blood pressure Decreased atrial stretch due to low blood volume Osmolarity greater than 280 mOsM |
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What is Aldosterone? |
A steroid; one of the products from the adrenal cortex |
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How can aldosterone be regulated? |
RAS pathway |
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What is the mechanism of action with aldosterone? |
1.Combines with a cytoplasmic receptor 2.Hormone-receptor complex initiates transcription in the nucleus 3.Translation and protein synthesis makes new protein channels and pumps 4.Aldosterone-induced proteins modulate existing channels and pumps 5.Result is increased Na reabsorption and K secretion |
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Aldosterone can cross the membrane of cells. Why? |
Its a steroid |
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Define Synesthesia |
"together perception' When sensory input of one type is accompied by autonomic |
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What is the most common synesthesia? |
Mirror-touch synethesia |
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What is Mirrow touch synethesia? |
The condition of experiencing the same sensation as that observed in another individual |
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What is this an example of? Memorize |
Aldosterone acting on principle cells |
