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280 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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3 types of skeletal muscle fiber
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-slow-twitch oxidative
-fast-twitch oxidative glycolytic -Fast-twitch glycolytic |
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skeletal muscles are named for their _____________ velocity and they way they produce ___-
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contractile
ATP |
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Skeletal fibers are normally a mix of
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3 kinds of fibers
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What determines how fast or slow twitch it is?
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ATPase
|
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muscle fiber speed
-medium -slowest -fastest |
-fast-twitch glycolytic red muscle
-slow-twitch red muscle -fast-twitch white muscle |
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what is the o2 binding pigment in red blood cells
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hemoglobin
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Ow binding pigment in skeletal muscle
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myoglobin
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What has a greater affinity (attraction)
myoglobin or hemoglobin |
Myoglobin
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conditioning of the body to make it more fit for performing desired skills
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athletic training
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when gaining muscle mass, what are you doing?
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Making cells bigger
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increasing muscle fiber (cell) diameter due to protein synthesis-->increase # of myofibril
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hypertrophy
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what is the adding of cells called?
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hyperplasia
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Are smooth muscle contractions fast or slow
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slow
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What is the most common smooth muscle organization
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single unit
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_________________ smooth muscle is connected by __________________ and the cells contract as a _________
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single unit
gap junctions single unit |
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Muscle types:
Somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system |
-skeletal
-smooth |
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What muscle organization of smooth muscle must be stimulated independently?
|
multi unit smooth muscle cells
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What is the protein in smooth muscles that holds bundles of actin and myosin together?
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dense bodies
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in_________ muscle, myosin head contract in the opposite direction
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smooth
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Smooth muscle use actin and myosin (much longer) but not _________ based.
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sarcomere
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________ muscle has Ca inside and outside
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smooth
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3 components of the cardiovascular system
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-blood
-blood vessels -heart |
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what are the functions of the cardiovascular system?
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distribute oxygen and nutrients to the body's cells
remove waste termoregulation |
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force-generating organ that propels blood throughout blood vessels
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heart
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blood circulation is one-way through _________ circuits
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2
|
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What are the 2 circuits that blood circulates through the body
-blood flow between heart and lungs -blood flow between heart and rest of body |
pulmonary
systemic |
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What side of the heart recieves"deoxygenated blood from the systemic circuit?
then sends it where? |
right side of heart
sends to pulmonary circuit |
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what side of the heart recieves osygenated blood from the pulmonary circuit?
sends where? |
left side of heart
systemic circuit |
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What keeps blood in the systemic circulation in babies?
why? |
Fetal Shunts
foamen ovale (closes fossa) lungs aren't used yet |
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cardiac muscle is _____________whcih means contractions are result of signals generated by the muscle itself
NOT EXTERNAL FROM THE NS |
myogenic
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ability to spontaneously produce action potentials in a periodic, repeatable manner
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autorhythmicity
(pacemake cells) |
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synchronize contractile cells in cardiac muscle
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autorhythmic cells (pacemakers)
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Where are pacemaker cells found in the heart?
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SA node
AV node |
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Cardiac is simular to skeletal muscle in that its functional unit of contraction is the ____
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sarcomere
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Contractions in the heart occur via __________________ like skeletal muscle
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myosin+actin
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Although cardiac and skeletal muscle are similuar, what are some major differences?
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communication between cells by gap junctions
Long action potiential duration (NO SUMMATION) |
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What does cardiac muscle have long action potientials?
|
no summation!
prevents tetanus |
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In _________ muscle, the muscle relaxes before another potiential can act of it
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cardiac
prevents summation |
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action potential in the heart
1. sa node depolarizes 2.electrical activity to AV node 3.deplolarization TOP DOWN (forces blood down) 4. blood to apex of heart 5. depolarization BOTTON UP |
yeah..
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what allows bottom up depolarization of the heart/
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fibrous barrier
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what is the primary regulator of the heartbeat?
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SA node
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Why is the SA node the primary regulator of the heart beat?
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-generates action potentials frequently
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What is the emergency backup in the heart
|
AV node
|
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placement of electrodes for ECG or EKG
|
einthovens triangle
|
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Why does the EKG work
|
-synchronized heart activity
-conductivity of body fluids |
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The _________ wave is a result of...
-P wave -QRS complex -T wave |
-atrial depolarization
-ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization -ventricular repolarization |
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what are abnormal heart beats
|
arrhythmias
|
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abnormally fast heart rate at resting state
|
tachycardia
|
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Abnormally slow heart beat
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Bradycardia
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loss of synchronized heart activity
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fibrilation
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-SA node failure
-15% of strokes due to blood clots |
A-Fib
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loss of ventricle ability to pump blood
How serious? |
V-fib
VERY SERIOUS |
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causes cardiac arrest
|
V-fib
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sudden loss of regular heartbeat (v-fib)
loss of consciousness |
Cardiac arrest
|
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heart attack called
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myocardial infarction
|
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caused by
inadequate o2 supply to heart muscle. -refered pain |
myocardial infarction
|
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blockage leads to
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heart attack (myocardial infarction)
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all events associated with the flow of blood through the heart during a single heartbeat
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cardiac cycle
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what is one complete cycle of atrial and ventricular contraction and relaxation
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heartbeat
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period of cardiac muscle contraction
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systole
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period of cardiac muscle relaxation
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diastole
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number of ventricular contractions per minute
average resting? |
heart rate
70/min |
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amount of blood pumped per ventricular contraction
ave? |
stroke volume
70 mL |
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How do you figure the cardiac output?
|
heart rate x stroke volume
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___ L of blood per min per ventricle
|
5
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the _____________ goes through the heart every _____ mins
|
total blood volume
1 |
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what are some factors that affect cardiac output
|
change in heart rate or stroke volume
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what has an impact on the heart
|
Nervous system
endocrine Heart CAN work without it! |
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heart rate is initiated by the ___________s autorhythmic cells and Modulated by the imput from the
|
SA nodes
nervous and endocrine system |
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increases heart rate by secreting _____________
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sympathetic NS
norepinephrine |
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decreases heart rate by secreting _______
|
parasympathetic NS
acetylcholine |
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Hormonal modulation:
_____________ secreted by adrenal medulla and _____________ heart rate. |
epinephrine
increases |
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What is more complex?
regulation of heart rate or stroke volume |
stroke volume
|
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force with which ventricles contract
depends on end-diastolic volume |
ventricular contractility
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Stroke volume largely depends on
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ventricular contractility
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stroke volume is NOT affected by the ____________ NS
|
parasympathetic
|
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What NS is the stroke volume affected by?
|
sympathetic NS
|
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transcription factor protein that turns on or off genes
-found in all vertebrate hearts |
Tbx5
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Tbx5 studies
-genetially altered mice produced 3 chambered hearts |
yep.
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What are the 3 main functions of the immune system?
Self vs nonself |
1.protection against disease causing (viruses,bacteria etc)
2.isolate or remove non-microbial foreign substances 3.recognize/remove abnormal cells (cancerous) |
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What are the 2 classes of microbes that are of primary health concern in the U.S?
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viruses
bacteria |
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what are some non-bacterial pathogenic microbes
ex? |
parasites
malaria ( bad air) -protozoan develops in mosquito 1.transmission 2. liver 3.bloodstream 4.kill red cells |
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the _________________ doesn't NOT constitute a traditional "organ system"
|
immune system
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the immune system is composed of cells found in the
- - - |
blood
lymph system -tissues |
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what type of leukocytes are in tissures and destroy non-self particles
|
monocytes and macrophages
|
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another name for white blood cells
|
leukocytes
|
|
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in the blood
most abundant wbc injest and destroy |
neutrophilis
|
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WBCs that are part of the acquired immune system
-recognize pathogens |
lymphocytes and plasma cells
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WBC that release chemicals that mediate inflammation and allergic responses
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basophils and mast cells
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WBCs that destroy antibody coated parasites
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eosinophilis
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WBCs that recognize pathogens and activate other immune cells by antigen presentation in lymph nodes
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dendritic cells
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What in the lymphatic system in not encapsulated and has a high immune cell count
|
tonsils
gut associated lymph tissue |
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in the lymphatic system, what produce red and white blood cells?
|
thymus gland
bone marrow |
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do lymph nodes have a high or low WBC concentration
|
HIGH
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T or F
immune cells in the lymph nodes are positioned to detect/intercept pathogens |
true
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What is the bodies first layer of defense that is kesigned to KEEP PATHOGENS OUT OF THE BODY
-physical -chemical -bahavioral If they fail: |
-Skin,nasal hairs,mucous, ciliated epithelium
-lysozyme,acidity,lactoferrin -sneezing,coughing,washing Immune system takes over! |
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present from birth
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innate immunity
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general defense against pathogens
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innate immunity
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protects against foreign substances/cells without recognizing specific identities
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innate immunity
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specific immunity
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acquired ammunity
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recognizes particular pathogen and selectively reacts to it
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acquired immunity
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what is the normal/ most common way to create immunity?
|
acquired immunity
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how does active immunity work?
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body is exposed to pathogen
creates antibodies |
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What are 2 types of immunity under acquired immunity
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active
and passive |
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how does passive immunity work?
|
acquire antibodies made by another organism
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in passive immunity, where could you get antibodies?
|
breast milk
feaces |
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what are 2 phagocytes
used in the immune system |
macrophages
|
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how does innate immune response work?
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phagocyte ingulfs pathogen
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sometime the innate immune system doesn't recognize the ___________ and the _____________- must tag it with anti body receptors
|
pathogen
acquired immune system |
|
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what are the 3 stages of acquired immunity?
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recognition of antigen by lymphocytes
lymphocyte activation and proliferation (making of proteins) attacks on antigen-bearing bodies |
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any molecule that triggers a specific immune response
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antigen
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these cells fight infection and are Short-lived
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effector
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long lived cells that produce secondary response
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memory cells
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memory and effector cells are part of the ___________-- immune system
|
acquired (active)
|
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Is a flu shot active or passive
|
active
|
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work against foreign bodies by ginding to antigens
aka |
anti- body
immunoglobulin |
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antibodies are ____________ produced by ____________ and are either ____________or ______________--
|
proteins
B lymphocytes either inserted into cell membranes or released from the cell |
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What are the 5 classes of antibodies?
-Ig -Ig -Ig -Ig -Ig |
-G
-A -E -M -D |
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what class of antibody comprises 75% of antibodies found in blood plasma
|
IgG
|
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what class of antibody involved in secondary immune response
|
IgG
|
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what class of antibody is the most common
|
IgG
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what class of antibody is found in external secretions
ex? |
IgA
Saliva tears breast milk |
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what class of antibody is involved in allergic responses
|
IgE
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what class of antibody is involved with primary immune responses and blood group antigens
|
IgM
|
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what class of antibody is the most common reason for blood transplant rejection
|
IgM
|
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what class of antibody is associated with IgM's but their role is unclear
|
IgM
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Y shaped proteins
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antibody
|
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What part of an antigen determines the Ig class
|
Base or Fc region
|
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an antibody is made of 2 identical ________ chains and 2 identical heavy chains linked by
|
light
disulfide |
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what is an incorrect response of the immune system?
caused by? ex? |
autoimmune disease
failure to distinguish self from non-self type 1 diabetes |
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What does an overactive immune response do
|
allergies
out of proportion response to threat |
|
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What is it called when the immune system has no response
|
immunodeficiencies
|
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if the immune has no primary immune response it is caused by:
if there is no acquired immune response it is cause by |
primary- gentic defect
acquired- infection (AIDS) |
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women tend to "prefer" men with ____________ that are
most alike or different? |
MHC genes
different! |
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What arteries have the most pressure
|
Elastic arteries
|
|
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Left heart
arteries arterioles capilaries venules veins right heart |
yeah
|
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What picks up the fluid that is lost from the capilaries?
what is this fluid called? |
lympahatic system
Lymph |
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Once the Lymph get to the ____________ its returned back to the ___________ system
|
thoracic duct,
circulation |
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How are blood vessels classified
|
Direction of blood flow
size |
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All blood vessels possesss a ___________
which is lined by________ larger vessels are protected in _________ |
lumen
epithelial tissue deeper tissue |
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hollow opening through which blood flows
|
lumen
|
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What conduct blood away from the heart
|
arteries and arterioles
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Arteries contain large amounts of __________&________ tissue and ________ musscle.
|
elastic and fibrous connective tissue
and Smooth muscle |
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Since __________ contain large amounts of elastic and fibrous connective tissue, they can withstand:
|
Arteries
Higher blood pressures |
|
|
________________-
smaller than arteries not visible by naked eye contain little connective tissue large amount of circular smooth muscle |
Arterioles
|
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What transport blood from arteries to capillaries
|
Arterioles
|
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smallest and most numerous blood vessels
invisible to naked eye |
Capillaries
|
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Do capillaries have muscle or connective tissue?
|
no
|
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consist of lumen one cell thick
|
capillaries
|
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The __________s simple structure allows them to exchange materials like
____&_____ between cells and blood |
capillaries
nutrients wastes |
|
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What conduct blood to the heart
|
veins and venues
|
|
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Veins
-__________ lumens, (_____ walls) -can withstand _____ blood pressure -contain one way valves Why? |
large, thin
lower to keep blood from pooling bc of low pressure |
|
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_________
smaller than veins, not visible some exchange |
venules
|
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transport blood from capillaries to veins
|
venules
|
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What has the most smooth muscle
|
artery
|
|
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what has the most elastic tissue
|
artery
|
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has no fibrous or elastic tissue
|
arteriole
|
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only has endothelium tissue
|
capillary
|
|
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has fibrous tissue and endothelium
|
venule
|
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as a little endothelium elastic , smooth and fibrous tissue
|
vein
|
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what are the 2 main components of blood
what %tage of blood is plasma |
plasma
cellular elements 55% |
|
|
fluid that circulates in the cardiovascular system
|
blood
|
|
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What proteins found in plasma are carriers?
blood clotting agents? |
-globulins
-fibrinogen |
|
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The "cellular elements" in blood are
|
cells
|
|
|
erythrocytes
|
red blood cells
|
|
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what are the most abundant cells in the blood (5 billion/mL)
|
red blood cells
|
|
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why are red blood cells unique?
|
lack nuclei,mitochondiria,ribosomes,
|
|
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what is the primary function of erythrocytes( red blood cells)
how (using what) |
transport oxygen and CO2
using hemoglobin |
|
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What is a hemoblobin molecule composed of
|
4 protein globin chains
|
|
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there are ___ hemes per molecule of hemoglobin, so each hemoglobin molecule can carry how many o2 or CO2
|
4
|
|
|
Fragments of bone marrow cells that have broken off
|
platelets
|
|
|
bone marrow cells are aka
|
megakaryocytes
|
|
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Are megakaryocytes larger or small than erthrocytes
|
smalleer
|
|
|
T or F
Platelets are important to blood clot formation |
True
|
|
|
Large cell with lots of DNA
|
megakaryocyte
|
|
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what makes magakaryocytes able to get so large
|
mitosis 7 times withough dividing
|
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An active _______ is spiky
|
platlet
|
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another name for blood clot
|
thrombus
|
|
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process of blood clot formation
|
hemostasis
|
|
|
what are the steps of clot formation? how?
1. vasoconstriction 2. platelet plug 2b.coagulation 3. vessel repair |
1.paracrine is released by damaged tissue
2. platelets become active becuase of the paracrines and chemical changes 2b. clot forms 3. clow dissolved by plasmin |
|
|
Enzyme released that converts fibrinogen to fibrin
|
thrombin
|
|
|
tissue deprived of blood by an inappropriate clot
|
infarct
|
|
|
enzyme that disolves a clot gradually
|
plasmin
|
|
|
t or f
blood clotting is simple |
F
unnecessairly complex |
|
|
t or f
whales lack factor XII and still clot |
True
|
|
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a feature that evolved under one set of conditions and becomes used for additional or different purposes
|
cooption
|
|
|
What is a clotting example of cooption?
|
CAMP
-evolved as intracellular messenger but is used for clotting now |
|
|
substance that triggers immune response
|
antigen
|
|
|
immune response
|
antibodies
|
|
|
1.no A or B antigens.
what antibodies? 2.A antigens what antibodies? 3.B antigens what antibodies? 4.A and B antigens what antibodies? |
1.O
anti A and B 2. A anti B 3. B anti A 4. AB no antibodies |
|
|
if you have the Rh factor your have ____ blood
if you dont have the Rh factor, you have _____ blood type |
positive
negative |
|
|
most common blood type
|
O neg
|
|
|
universal donor
|
O
|
|
|
What is the universal acceptor blood type
|
AB
|
|
|
what are the 2 types of respiration
|
internal
external |
|
|
cellular respiration
o2 is used in mitochondira in ATP produciton |
internal respiration
|
|
|
exchange of O2 and CO2 between the ouside air and body tissues
|
external respiration
|
|
|
What is the main function of the respiratory system
|
external respiration
|
|
|
4 processes of external respiration
1.inspiration and expiration (between outside and lungs) 2.exchange of O2 and CO2 between ___&____ 3.transportation of gas by the _______ 4. exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood and cells by: |
1.pulmonary ventilation
2.lungs and blood 3.blood 4.diffusion |
|
|
Other functions of respiratory system besides gas exchange?
|
-vocalization
-pathogen defense mucous, cilia, macrophages -body pH selective loss/retention of CO2 -dissipating water and heat breathing |
|
|
What allows lung movement
and holds lungs against thoracic wall |
pleural fluid
3mL |
|
|
aka collapsed lung
________ can cause lung to detach from thorasic wall |
Pneumothorax
to detach |
|
|
Where is the main gas exchange site in the respiratory system
|
alveoli
|
|
|
in airways in the respiratory system, division__________- and diameter__________-
|
increase
decrease |
|
|
what has the total SA of a racket ball court
|
Lung
|
|
|
The _____________-- contains 10% of total blood volume
|
pulmonary circuit
|
|
|
each __________ has extensive capilary beds
|
alveolar sac
|
|
|
In an alveolar structure, what is the ______ cell for?
type1- type 2- |
most common cell gas exchange
synthesizes surfactants secrete sirfactin that keeps cells lubricated for expansion |
|
|
At rest, the intra-alveolar pressure is
|
equal to atmospheric pressure
|
|
|
air flow into and out of lungs is driven by:
-lungs expand= pressure down -lungs shrink= pressure up to push out air |
pressure gradients
|
|
|
What are somePhysical factors affecting ventilation
-air pressure gradient -airway resistance |
^ gradient= ^ ventiliation
down resistance= ^ventilation |
|
|
respiratory neurons in the _______- control inspiration and expiration
|
medulla oblongata
|
|
|
respiratory neurons in the _______ modulate ventilation
|
pons
|
|
|
rhythmic breathing pattern due to spontaneously dischanging neurons
|
respiratory pacemakers?
|
|
|
ventilation can be modulated by
|
higher brain centers
emotion,sickness chemicals etc |
|
|
What 3 things are used for inspiration
|
scalene and sternocleidomastoid muscles
external intercoastals diaphragm |
|
|
what 2 things are used for expiration
|
internal intercostals
abdominal muscles |
|
|
in ventilation, the ____&____ get feedback from different places
|
pons and medulla oblongata
|
|
|
Your inner fish:
why do we get hiccups |
pathway that fish use to breathe
|
|
|
what causes hiccups
|
diaphragm spasm
|
|
|
brief paralysis of diaphragm
|
getting wind knowcked out of you
|
|
|
what do condon think stimulates the mother to give birth?
|
surfactant protein A levels get higher
|
|
|
What is a function of the kidneys?
most important? |
waste removal
Water and Ion homeostasis |
|
|
the kidneys play a role in the hormones ___ which do?
-erythropoletin (EPO) -calcitriol (v D3) -renin (enzyme) |
-increases red blood cell production
-Ca balance and metabolism -aldosterone regulation (Na balance |
|
|
T of F
kidneys have a tremendous reserve capacity |
true
|
|
|
most of the ______ isn't used
|
kidneys
|
|
|
t or f
1 in 1000 people live just fine with 1 kidney |
t
|
|
|
____ to _____ percent of cardiac output is going to the kidneys
|
20-25 %
|
|
|
In the kidneys,what is left in the _________ goes to the bladder
|
nephrons
|
|
|
2 capillary networks directly connected by blood vessels
|
portal system
|
|
|
Filtration is ________- and __________
|
passsive and nonselective
|
|
|
movement of fluid, solutes from blood (arterioles) to lumen of nephron (bowmans capsule)
|
filtration
|
|
|
functional unit of kidney
|
nephron
|
|
|
what does filtration
|
bowman's capsule
|
|
|
where reabsorption occurs
|
proximal tubule
|
|
|
Reabsorption can be
|
passive or active
and selective about what is taken back to the body |
|
|
What is the fundamental principle concerning the kidneys
|
Filter EVERYTHING
reabsorb SELECTIVELY |
|
|
secretion is ________ and______
|
active and selective
|
|
|
movement of fluid, solutes from the blood bakc to lumen of nephron
|
secretion
|
|
|
end-product of A-C = urine
leaves nephron (collecting duct) through ureter to bladder |
excretion
|
|
|
the excretion process is :
|
passive
|
|
|
What is in the ________- duct is unrecoverable
|
collecting
|
|
|
where is the bulk of the filtration and secretion done
|
peritubular capillaries
|
|
|
20% is filtered and is realitively constant in the nephron, but 19% is reabsorbed back (of the 19%0
|
filtration fraction
|
|
|
100% plasma enters arteriole,
80% plasma entering kidney returns to circulation 20% filtered of the 20%, 19 is reabsorbed |
yeahhhh
|
|
|
urination
|
micturition
|
|
|
the bladder is made of ____ muscle
|
smooth
|
|
|
the bladder is in continuous contact with ___________ neurons
why? |
motor neurons
keeps bladder contracted |
|
|
nocturnal enuresis
|
bedwetting
|
|
|
if its not psychological, bedwetting can be caused by the loss or delayed development of circadian rhythum of______
|
vasopressin (ADH)
|
|
|
number of particles (free ions and molecules) per liter of water
|
osmolarity
|
|
|
^ number of particles=
|
^ osmolarity
|
|
|
T or F
Water can be make by metabolism |
true
|
|
|
Where can we conserve water>?
|
urine
|
|
|
Water gain and loss are
|
equal
|
|
|
The ___________- can only ________ fluid. they cannot restore ___________ volume
|
kidneys conserve
lost |
|
|
________ stops if water level is too low
|
filtration
|
|
|
Quick redistribution
slow redistribution |
cardiovascular system
respiratory system kidneys behavior (from hypothalamus) |
|
|
Osmolarity drops from ______- to ____ when you get to the _________
|
300 to 100
loop of Henle |
|
|
what has a very large range of osmolarity
|
urine
|
|
|
what controls the distal nephrons permeability to water and solutes
|
hormones
|
|
|
fluid movement in close proximity but in opposite directions
what capillary does it use |
countercurrent exchange
vasa recta |
|
|
How do concentration gradients in the Kidneys stay constant?
|
countercurrent exchange
ions and water that are being reabsorbed are picked up by blood vessels |
|
|
What hormones help the body decide what to reabsorb?
|
Vasopressin
|
|
|
More ___________ = more water reabsorption
released from ? made by? |
Vasopressin
posterior pituitary hypothalamus |
|
|
Vasopressin action
1. binds to ___________ receptor 2. Activates_________ system 3.inserts ____ into membrane 4. creates gates for H2O to go to blook vessels |
1.membrane
2.second messenger 3.aqua porins |
|
|
What are the 3 inputs that can trigger Vasopressin release?
-__________ greater than ___ -________ _______ stretch bc of low blood volume -__________ blood pressure |
-osmolarity;280
-decreased atrial -decreased |
|
|
What steroid controls sodium potassium ballance?
where is it from? |
Aldosterone
adrenal cortex |
|
|
Aldosterone Action
1. binds with_____ in cell 2.initiates ____ in nucleus -makes new: 3.Proteins made in nucleus modify existing ________ 4.Result= |
1.cytoplasmic receptor
2. transcription new pumps and channels 3. proteins 4. increased na apsorbtion and K secretion |
|
|
What animal can produce urine more consentrated than sea water
why |
kangaroo rat and Camel
Long loops of Henle |
|
|
what controls the distal nephrons permeability to water and solutes
|
hormones
|
|
|
fluid movement in close proximity but in opposite directions
what capillary does it use |
countercurrent exchange
vasa recta |
|
|
How do concentration gradients in the Kidneys stay constant?
|
countercurrent exchange
ions and water that are being reabsorbed are picked up by blood vessels |
|
|
What hormones help the body decide what to reabsorb?
|
Vasopressin
|
|
|
More ___________ = more water reabsorption
released from ? made by? |
Vasopressin
posterior pituitary hypothalamus |
|
|
Vasopressin action
1. binds to ___________ receptor 2. Activates_________ system 3.inserts ____ into membrane 4. creates gates for H2O to go to blook vessels |
1.membrane
2.second messenger 3.aqua porins |
|
|
What are the 3 inputs that can trigger Vasopressin release?
-__________ greater than ___ -________ _______ stretch bc of low blood volume -__________ blood pressure |
-osmolarity;280
-decreased atrial -decreased |
|
|
What steroid controls sodium potassium ballance?
where is it from? |
Aldosterone
adrenal cortex |
|
|
Aldosterone Action
1. binds with_____ in cell 2.initiates ____ in nucleus -makes new: 3.Proteins made in nucleus modify existing ________ 4.Result= |
1.cytoplasmic receptor
2. transcription new pumps and channels 3. proteins 4. increased na apsorbtion and K secretion |
|
|
What animal can produce urine more consentrated than sea water
why |
kangaroo rat and Camel
Long loops of Henle |
