Physiology Exam 2

Front 1

Nerve

Back 1

a group of many nerve fibers traveling together in the PNS (bunch of axons wrapped together)

Front 2

Pathway or tract

Back 2

group of axons in the CNS

Front 3

ganglion

Back 3

group of neuron cell bodies in PNS

Front 4

Nuclei

Back 4

group of neuron cell bodies in CNS

Front 5

Cerebrum

Back 5

Part of forebrain; made up of the right and left cerebral hemispheres

Front 6

Cerebral cortex

Back 6

forms the outer shell of the cerebrum and is divided into 4 lobes;
participates in perceptioni, generation of skilled movements, reasoning, learning, memory

Front 7

Cerebral ventricles

Back 7

four interconnected cavities that contain cerebrospinal fluid (also lighten brain)

Front 8

Diencephalon

Back 8

contains thalamus and hypothalamus

Front 9

Thalamus

Back 9

synaptic relay station for sensory pathways traveling to cortex

Front 10

Hypothalamus

Back 10

involved in homeostatic regulation and is a principal site for regulating survival behaviors (HOMEOSTASIS)

Front 11

Limbic system

Back 11

area of the forebrain associated with learning and emotions (goes awry in ALZHEIMER'S disease)
-long term memory

Front 12

Cerebellum

Back 12

plays role in posture, movement, and some kinds of memory; much development occurs after birth;
MODIFIES ONGOING MOVEMENT

Front 13

Brainstem

Back 13

contains midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata

Front 14

Reticular formation

Back 14

essential group of cell bodies for life; receives and integrates input from all regions of the CNS and responsible for output of neural information

Front 15

Cranial nerves

Back 15

peripheral nerves innervating muscles, glands, and sensory receptors in head and organs in thoracic and abdominal cavities.

Front 16

Gray matter (spinal)

Back 16

contains nerve cell bodies and dendrites

Front 17

White matter (spinal

Back 17

surrounds gray matter and contains myelinated axons organized into ascending or descending tracts

Front 18

affarent fibers

Back 18

are from peripheral nerves enter the spinal cord on the DORSAL side

Front 19

efferent fibers

Back 19

axons leave the spinal cord on the ventral side via ventral roots

Front 20

# of nerves in PNS

Back 20

12 pairs of cranial
31 pairs of spinal nerves

Front 21

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
(efferent division)

Back 21

consists of a SINGLE neuron between CNS and effector organ;
neurons innervate skeletal muscle; neurons releases acetylcholine;
only EPSP

Front 22

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
(efferent division)

Back 22

has two-neuron chain between CNS and effector organ;
innervates smooth and cardiac muscle, glands, GI neurons;
can lead to EPSP OR IPSP of effector cells

Front 23

parasympathetic neuron length

Back 23

long pre-ganglionic
short post

Front 24

sympathetic neuron length

Back 24

short pre ganglionic
long post

Front 25

Adrenal medulla

Back 25

hormone secreting part of sympathetic nervous system;
releases mainly EPI and NE in bloodstream

Front 26

Dual innervation

Back 26

many effector organs receive both sympathetic and para-sympathetic innervation;
provides fine control

Front 27

Classes of receptors in PNS

Back 27

Nicotinic and muscarinic receptors:
respond to ACh
Alpha and beta adrenergic receptors:
respond to NE and EPI

Front 28

Cerebrospinal fluid

Back 28

formed in the ventricles; fills ventricles; helps cushion and nourish the brain

Front 29

blood supply to the brain

Back 29

composition of extracellular fluid of the CNS is closely regulated by the blood-brain barrier
cells that line blood vessels in the brain limit the traffic of molecules into and out of the brain cells
antibiotics do not cross the barrier

Front 30

neural receptors

Back 30

receptors translate information from the external world and internal environment into graded potentials, which then generate AP's

Front 31

types of stimulus energy (5)

Back 31

mechanical
chemical
light
nocireceptors (pain)
thermal

Front 32

poked in the eye?

Back 32

same message as light impinging on the eye

Front 33

signal transduction in all sensory receptors

Back 33

1. opening or closing of receptor ion channels
2. initiation of an AP
3. AP frequency increases with stimulus strength
4. ADAPTATION decreases in frequency of action potentials despite maintenance of the stimulus at constant strength

Front 34

primary sensory coding

Back 34

type of stimulus perceived is determined by receptor activated (TYPE; INTENSITY; LOCATION; DURATION)

all receptors of a given sensory unit respond to the same stimuls modality (i.e. COLD)

Front 35

stimulus intensity is coded by...

Back 35

the RATE of firing of sensory units
the NUMBER of sensory units activated

Front 36

perception of location of stimulus depends on...

Back 36

SIZE of the receptive field covered by a single sensory unit

Front 37

sensory unit

Back 37

a single affarent neuron with all its receptor endings (affarent neurons are the first in sensory pathways)

Front 38

specific ascending pathways

Back 38

convey information to specific primary receiving areas of the cerebral cortex about only a single type of stimulus (i.e. thermoreceptors)
have 3 or more neurons

Front 39

ascending pathways non-specific

Back 39

convey information from MORE THAN ONE TYPE of sensory unit to the brainstem reticular formation and regions of the thalamus (i.e. alarm while sleeping)

Front 40

descending pathways

Back 40

pathways that convey information from the brain

Front 41

cortical association areas

Back 41

areas that lie outside the primary cortical sensory or motor areas but are connected to them

Front 42

processing in the association cortex

Back 42

includes input from areas of the brain serving arousal, attention, memory, language, and emotions (ignoring t.v. while studying)

Front 43

Somatic sensation

Back 43

sensations from the skin, body walls, of organs, bones, tendons (each sensation associated with a specific receptor type)

Front 44

somatic sensations (4)

Back 44

touch-pressure
posture and movement
temp
pain
(mainly fingers, thumb, and lips...largest areas of somatosensory)

Front 45

touch-pressure

Back 45

rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors- vibration, touch, and movement.

slowly adapting mechanoreceptors-
pressure

Front 46

skin receptors have

Back 46

small receptive fields= fine spacial discrimination

larger receptive fields= less precise touch-pressure sensations

Front 47

posture and movement

Back 47

muscle spindle stretch receptor- slow adapting major receptor responsible for the senses of posture and kinesthesia

Front 48

temperature sensation

Back 48

cold receptors- sensitive to decreasing temperature

warm receptors- sensitive to increasing temp.
CHANGES ENERGY STATE

Front 49

Pain

Back 49

tissue damage stimulates specific receptors that give rise to the sensation of pain
may also induce emotional and reflex responses

Front 50

light (vision)

Back 50

electromagnetic radiation
described by its wavelength or frequency
VISIBLE LIGHT 400-700nm

Front 51

eye

Back 51

2 compartment chamber
ANTERIOR- bending light to post on posterior chamber
POSTERIOR- takes light and transforms into action potentials

Front 52

optics of vision

Back 52

the light that falls on the retina focused by cornea and lens

Front 53

accommodation (vision)

Back 53

process where lens shape is changed in response to viewing near or distant objects so that both are focused on the retina

Front 54

ciliary muscle

Back 54

parasympathetic
controls lens shape
circular muscle

Front 55

presyopia (refractive disorder

Back 55

increasing stiffness of the lens makes accommodation for near vision difficult. occurs with aging

Front 56

myopia

Back 56

nearsightedness
can arise from either an eye that is too long or a lens that is too wide

Front 57

hyperopia

Back 57

farsightedness (eye too short or lens too small)

Front 58

iris

Back 58

muscle which controls the amount of light entering the eye
ring-like pigmented

Front 59

pupil

Back 59

hole in the center of the iris through which light enters the eye

Front 60

receptor cells (vision)

Back 60

rods and cones are photoreceptor cells in retina
more dense in fovea (center of retina)

intensity of light is coded by frequency of A.Ps discharge

Front 61

rods

Back 61

high sensitivity
no color
low spacial resolution
located in the peripheral

Front 62

cones

Back 62

low sensitivity
colors red,blue,green
high spacial resolution
located center of retina

Front 63

color vision

Back 63

color perceived related to wavelength of light
diff. wavelengths excite one of 3 cone photo pigments most strongly

Front 64

neural pathways of vision

Back 64

rods and cones synapse on BIPOLAR CELLS which synapse on GANGLION CELLS
ganglion cell axons form the optic nerves

Front 65

eye movement

Back 65

six skeletal muscles control eye movement
when scanning the visual field the muscles keep the fixation point focused on the fovea centralis despite movements of the object or head

Front 66

sound

Back 66

sound energy is trnsmitted by movements of air pressure waves

Front 67

frequency of sound waves determines...

Back 67

pitch

Front 68

amplitude of sound waves determines...

Back 68

loudness

Front 69

tympanic membrane

Back 69

sound waves enter the external auditory canal and press against it causing it to vibrate (barrier between external and internal ear)

Front 70

3 middle earbones

Back 70

malleus, incus, and stapes

stapes vibrates against the oval window membrane

Front 71

vestibular apparatus

Back 71

lies in the temporal bone on each side of the head
consists of:
3 semicircular ducts
a utricle
a saccule
(for position of head)

Front 72

semicircular ducts

Back 72

detect angular acceleration during rotation of head
causes bending of stereocilia on their hair cells

Front 73

ampula

Back 73

bulge in semi-circular duct

Front 74

cupula

Back 74

gelatinous mass that ensheaths the cilia- located in the ampulla

Front 75

utricle and saccule

Back 75

contain otoliths
in the gelatinous substance
move in response to changes in linear acceleration and head position relative to gravity

stimulate the cilia on the hair cells
i.e. utricle=car otolith= person

Front 76

receptors for taste

Back 76

in taste buds
can respond to many diff. subst.
diff. types of taste receptors operate by diff. mechanisms
some people have more than others

Front 77

olfactory receptors

Back 77

part of the afferent olfactory neurons

lie in the mucosa in the upper nasal cavity

Front 78

olfactory pathways go...

Back 78

to the limbic system
smell triggerse strong emotions (tied to the limbic system)

Front 79

Endocrine System

Back 79

one of the body's 2 major communication systems (other nervous) consists of all glands that secrete hormones

Front 80

hormones

Back 80

chemical messengers that are carried by the blood from the endocrine glands to target cells in the body. they bind to receptors

Front 81

the endocrine system regulates these activities of organs and cells:

Back 81

maintain homeostasis

adapt to stress

promote growth and development

regulate reproduction

Front 82

major endocrine glands/tissues

Back 82

hypothalamus
ovary/placenta
parathyroid
pancreas
pituitary
thyroid
testis
adrenal

Front 83

3 classes of hormones

Back 83

amines
peptides and proteins
steroids

Front 84

amines

Back 84

include epinephrine and norepinephrine which are water soluble

Front 85

peptides and proteins

Back 85

typically circulate dissolved in the plasma water
often synthesized as larger pro-hormones which are cleaved

Front 86

steroids

Back 86

i.e. aldosterone and testosterone
produced from cholesterol by the adrenal cortex and the gonads, and by the placenta during pregnancy
circulate bound to plasma proteins

Front 87

adrenal glands

Back 87

two; located each on top of a kidney
with two endocrine glands adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

Front 88

adrenal medulla

Back 88

inner layer of endocrine gland; secretes the amine hormones EPI and NE

Front 89

adrenal cortex

Back 89

outer layer of endocrine gland; secretes steroid hormones

Front 90

aldosterone

Back 90

secreted by adrenal cortex; role in the kidneys' handling of Na+, K+, and H+

Front 91

cortisol

Back 91

secreted by adrenal cortex; effect on glucose metabolism
(stress hormone

Front 92

Ovaries

Back 92

produce mainly estradiol and progesterone
also leak small amounts of testosterone

Front 93

testes

Back 93

produce mainly testosterone which can be converted to estradiol in some target tissues

Front 94

kidneys and liver roles in endocrine system

Back 94

major organs that remove hormones from the plasma by metabolizing or excreting them
peptide and most amine hormones are rapidly removed from blood
steroid and thyroid removed slower

Front 95

insoluble hormones

Back 95

most steroid and thyroid hormones in the blood are bound to other proteins

when measuring hormone levels it is important to measure the amount of unbound hormone, not total hormone

Front 96

mechanisms of hormone action

Back 96

hormones can up regulate (increase) or down regulate (decrease) their own receptors and those of other hormones

Front 97

signal transduction of hormone receptors

Back 97

peptides and catecholamines trigger plasma membrane transduction pathways
lipid soluble hormones bind receptors in the cell. the complex then binds to DNA in the nucleus and induces transcription.

Front 98

bacteria

Back 98

unicellular organisms with an outer coating and a plasma membrane, but no intracellular membrane-bound organelles.
can replicate at site or travel to areas first.

Front 99

viruses

Back 99

essentially nucleic acids surrounded by a protein coat
must live inside other cells to live
cells then synthesize proteins required for viral replication

Front 100

phagocytic cells

Back 100

phagocytose toxins and invading organisms then break them down

Front 101

cytotoxic T cells

Back 101

kill our own diseased cells (tumor cells or those with viruses)

Front 102

B cells

Back 102

make antibodies that can surround toxins and bacteria. once surrounded bacteria can be killed or toxins can be phagocytosed

Front 103

bacteria

Back 103

unicellular organisms with an outer coating and a plasma membrane, but no intracellular membrane-bound organelles.
can replicate at site or travel to areas first.

Front 104

viruses

Back 104

essentially nucleic acids surrounded by a protein coat
must live inside other cells to live
cells then synthesize proteins required for viral replication

Front 105

phagocytic cells

Back 105

phagocytose toxins and invading organisms then break them down

Front 106

cytotoxic T cells

Back 106

kill our own diseased cells (tumor cells or those with viruses)

Front 107

B cells

Back 107

make antibodies that can surround toxins and bacteria. once surrounded bacteria can be killed or toxins can be phagocytosed

Front 108

phagocytosis

Back 108

primary cellular mediators are NEUTROPHILS and MACROPHAGES

Front 109

complement (immune)(

Back 109

interacts with carbs
membrane attack complex lyses cells
stimulates inflammation

Front 110

interferons(immune)

Back 110

stimulate the production of intracellular proteins that specifically inhibit viral replication
mobilize macrophages and natural killer cells
(one of 1st drugs for HIV)

Front 111

lympohocytes

Back 111

travel continuously throughout body
specific
late responders
produce plasma and memory cells

Front 112

antigen presenting cells (immune)

Back 112

reside in tissue or blood
many types of cells
specific

Front 113

primary lymphoid organs

Back 113

bone marrow and thymus
sites of lymphocyte maturation...NOT activation

Front 114

secondary lymphoid organs

Back 114

lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and lymphocyte collections
major site of lymphocyte mitosis and specific immune responses
ACTIVATION

Front 115

antigen

Back 115

any foreign molecule that can trigger a specific immune response against itself