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75 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Islets of Langerhan's
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-only 2-5% of total mass of pancreas
-density of islets is critical in determining diabetes |
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Types of Cells of the Islets of Langerhan's
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-Alpha cells
-Beta cells -C cells -D cells |
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Where are alpha cells found and what do they produce?
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-found at periphery
-produce glucacon |
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What do beta cells produce?
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-insulin
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What do C cells produce and where are they found?
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-produce pancreatic polypeptide
-found randomly distributed |
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What does pancreatic polypeptide do?
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-may have a digestive function, not entirely sure what they do
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What do D cells produce and inhibit?
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-produce somatostatin
-inhibit release of glucagon and insulin |
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Where are D cells found?
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-between alpha and beta cells
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What does somatostatin do?
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-inhibits release of glucagon and insulin
-14 AA compound |
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What is somatostatin the same as?
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-GH-IH (produce in hypothalamus)
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Insulin
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-51 chains
-also di-sulfide bridges -almost identical in a bunch of animals -only different by 1 or 2 |
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Functions of insulin
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-protein synthesis
-glycogenesis -lipogenesis (also inhibits lysis of all 3) -activates GLUT 1-5 which allows cells to use glucose |
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Type I DM
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-formerly juvenile onset DM
-IDDM -ketosis prone -insulin therapy |
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Type II DM
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-adult onset DM
-NIDDM -non-ketosis -diet and exercise can help |
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What are some drug therapies to treat Type II DM?
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-hypoglycemic agents (ONLY for type II DM)
-Insulin therapy (so this type really shouldn't be called NON-insulin dependent) |
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What percentage of pregnant women develop gestational DM?
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-5-7%
-not recognized until 22nd week or so |
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What happens in gestational diabetes?
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-placenta creates placental lactogen (anti-insulin effect)
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What is the first course of treatment for gestational diabetes?
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-diet/exercise (if that doesn't work, put them on insulin)
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What happens after pregnancy (in regards to gestational DM)?
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-significant increase in chance of developing type II DM
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What is obesity a high risk for?
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type II DM (but thin people can get it too)
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Average lifespan for individuals in the US
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may go down b/c so many ppl are overweight/obese
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What happens in type II DM?
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downregulation of insulin receptors with excessive cellular glycogen deposition (cells have limited capacity to store glycogen, so when they can no longer taken in glucose, glucose levels in the blood stay high)
-down regulation can be permanent |
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Can diet and exercise cure a patient with type II DM?
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yes! in some cases
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How can diet and exercise cure type II DM?
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by depleting glycogen reserves and inducing insulin receptor return to the surface of the cell
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What is metformin?
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hypoglycemic agent
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What are 4 pathologies associated with DM?
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-neuropathy (main reason for amputations)
-nephropathy -retinopathy -cardiovascular disease |
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What is the normal overnight plasma fasting glucose?
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70-100mg/dl
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What plasma fasting glucose levels would indicate a moderate risk for DM?
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101-110mg/dl
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What plasma fasting glucose levels would indicate a high risk for DM?
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111-125 mg/dl
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What plasma fasting glucose levels would indicate DM?
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> or equal to 126
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What is the most accurate way to see if an individual has DM?
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glucose tolerance test
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What does a glucose tolerance test entail?
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-person drinks syrupy glucose solution
-take blood sample right before they drink (at 0 hour) -take blood samples every 15 minutes thereafter |
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What would you see in a glucose tolerance test for an individual who has DM?
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-much longer time for plasma glucose levels to return to normal
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What kind of cells are in the medulla of the adrenal gland and what do they produce?
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chromaffin cells that produce epi/NE
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What does the cortex of the adrenal gland primarily produce?
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steroidal hormones
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What are the 3 layers of the cortex of the adrenal gland?
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GFR
-zona glomerulosa -zona fasiculata -zone reticularis |
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What kind of hormone is produced in the zona glomerulosa?
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mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) - only hormone with aldehyde attached to it
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What kind of hormone is produced in the zona fasiculata?
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glucocorticoids
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What controls the level of glucocorticoids?
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negative feedback (through ACTH-RH by hypothalamus)
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What are 5 functions of glucocorticoids?
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-Gluconeogenesis (in liver)- even if you deplete all of the carbs in your body, blood glucose will stay normal (due to gluconeogenesis)
-Glycogen synthesis by the liver -Stimulates adipose cells to release lipids and fatty acids into blood -Breakdown of skeletal muscle fiber proteins and release of amino acids into blood -Most important function: anti-inflammatory/immunosuppressive |
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What hormone is produced in the zona reticularis?
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androgens (very little female hormones produced)
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Addison's disease
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-insufficient glucocorticoid production
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Cushing's Syndrome
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-excessive glucocorticoid production
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What can happen in both Cushing's Syndrome and Addison's disease?
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adrenal cortex can function normally, but if it doesn't get the message from the anterior pituitary or hypothalamus, disease can result
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All steroids are derived from the same basic structure
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-Minimum 17 carbons
-Basic structre: sterane -By adding to 17 carbon structure, create different steroids -Cortisol has some aldosterone-like functions (because of similarity in structure) |
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What are testes made up of?
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seminiferous tubules (lobules)
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Where does sperm production take place?
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in seminiferous tubules
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Where are Leydig cells found?
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in between tubules
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What do Leydig cells produce?
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testosterone
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Can sperm production take place without testosterone?
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NO (azoospermia)
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What happens to the testes with aging?
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-mass of testes declines
-due to loss of Leydig cells(and consequent loss of testosterone) |
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What do sertoli cells produce?
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-estrogen
-inhibin (important in negative feedback mechanism) |
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What does estrogen needed for?
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-needed for proper sperm development
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Can sperm production take place without estrogen?
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Yes, limited amount
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Where are immature sperm cells found and what is their chromosomal content?
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-found in periphery of seminiferous tubules
-full chromosomal complement (2N=diploid) |
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What is the chromosomal content of a mature sperm cell?
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haploid (1N)
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What do anabolic steroids mimic the effect of?
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-testosterone (therefore, individuals who take anabolic steroids are azoospermic)
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What is the main function of estrogen and progesterone (in female)?
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to rebuild the endometrium
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As levels of estrogen and progesterone rise, what happens?
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-negative feedback to GnRH, negative feedback to FSH/LH and endometrial lining sloughs off
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Progesterone
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-Makes the lining highly secretory for a potential egg being embedded
-Does not allow uterine contraction -Primary cause of spontaneous abortions is due to low levels of progesterone |
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If there is no pregnancy, what happens to the corpus luteum?
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becomes corpora albicans (scar tissue - b/c levels of LH go down)
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What 2 hormones go away whether there is or is not pregnancy?
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FSH and LH
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If there is pregnancy, what happens to corpus luteum?
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stays as corpus luteum and does not become scar tissue (due to HCG)
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What is beta-HCG produced by?
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early placenta
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What is the structure of beta Hcg very similar to?
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LH
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Which trimester is corpus luteum important in and what does it produce?
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-first trimester
-produces estrogen and progesterone |
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Why do we want high levels of beta Hcg in the first trimester?
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-b/c it stimulates corpus luteum to produce estrogen and progesterone
-w/o beta Hcg, after first trimester, corpus luteum becomes corpora albicans |
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What does relaxin do?
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relaxes pubic symphisis during parturition
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At birth, what hormone do we NOT want?
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progesterone (b/c it inhibits uterine contractions)
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What 2 hormones do we want to be high at birth?
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oxytocin and beta estradiol
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PGF-2alpha
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thought to stimulate uterine contractions, but you need oxytocin for PGF-alpha to work
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Birth control
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-estrogen and progesterone
-inhibits brain from secreting LH |
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T/F: oxytocin directly stimulates uterine contraction
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false
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What type of hormone production is initiated in the skin?
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vitamin D (7 dehydrocholestrol)
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In amplification, what increases?
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cAMP
G proteins enzyme activity |
