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138 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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components of the conducting zone
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trachia, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles. No gas exchange here
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components of the respiratory zone
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respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs Gas exchange here
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components of the upper airway
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nostril, nasal cavity, pharynx, mouth, larynx
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what walls of the respiratory system have cartilage
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trachea, bronchi
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what parts of the respiratory system contain protective structures for particulate matter
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respiratory bronchioles and higher
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what are the structures that are located on airway epithelium for protection
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cilia, glands, cell that secrete mucus, watery fluid secreters, macrophages
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what is the cause of cystic fibrosis
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defect in CL- channels that effects the water secretory cell. Allows the mucus to become thick.
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what are the components of the respiratory membrane
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alveolar wall (epithelium), interstitial space, capillary wall (endothelium)
"entire pathway which CO2, O2 must travel" |
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Type I alveolar cell
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majority of the lining of the alveoli, monolayer
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Type II alveolar cell
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interspersed in the monolayer and secrete surfactant that acts like a detergent
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Plueral sac
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thin sheet of cells that surrounds each lung. consists of two membranes that lie adjacent to each other.
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what are the components of the plueral sac
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inner membrane(attached to the lung), outer membrane (attached to the thoraxic wall and diaphragm)
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what is the function of the interplueral fluid
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lubrication of the plueral surfaces, changes in this hydrostatic pressure are directly related to lung and thoracic wall changes
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what is the equation for bulk flow
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F=Patm-Palv/R
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what is the most important factor in determining resistance
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radius inversely proportional to the 4th power of the radius
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Boyles law
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at constant temp, pressure varies inversely with the volume of the container
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what is transpulmonary pressure
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measure of pressure between the inside and outside of the lungs. Not outside the body Palv-Pip
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what is the effect of transpulmonary pressure change
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change the lung vol and result in air movement,
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Lung compliance equation
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change in vol/change(Palv-Pip)
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what does increased compliance mean
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you have greater expansion than normal
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what does decreased compliance mean?
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you have less than normal expansion
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what is the cause of respiratory distress syndrome in infants
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lack of ability to produce surfactant
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what are the 2 determinants of compliance
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elasticity, and surface tension
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what does surfactant do and where is it produced
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reduces surface tension which increases compliance
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what are the three factors that effect resistance
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chemical, physical, neuronal
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what are the physical factors that effect resistance
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transpulmonary pressure, lateral traction(for distention of airways)
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what are the neural factors that effect resistance
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Epinephrine (relaxation), leukotrienes (contraction)
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what is the cause of asthma
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airway smooth m. strongly contracting
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how would you treat asthma
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give anti-inflammatory drugs glucocorticoids or bronchodilaters albuterol, theophylline
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what is COPD
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chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
causes difficulty in ventilation and oxygenation of the blood (not a smooth m. condition) |
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what is emhysema
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COPD that results in the loss of alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
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what is chronic bronchitis
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COPD that is characterized by over production of mucus and inflammation in the airways
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what is FEV1
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forced expiratory volume. amount expired in 1 second after full inspiration. measured as a % of vital capacity
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what is obstructive lung disease
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when FEV1 is less than 80%, get barrel chested becuase airways are narrowed
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what is restrictive lung disease
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when FEV1 is normal but vital capicity is lowered
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what is minute ventilation
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total amount of air moved into and out of the lungs in 1 min
Min ventilation(ml/min)=Tidal vol(ml/breath)xrespiratory rate(breath/min) |
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what is alveolar ventilation
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the fresh air that moves into the alveoli in one min. AV=TV-dead space x RR
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what is physiological dead space
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anatomical+alveolar
alveolar=air in the alveoli with no blood suplly anatomic dead space=air in the conducting zone |
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what is the respiratory quotient
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CO2 prod/ O2 cons = RQ
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Dalton's law
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in a mixture of gases the pressure of one gas is indepentent of all the other gases
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henry's law
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the amount of a gas dissolved in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.
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what are the normal atm pressure of the four main gases
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o2=160 co2=.3 h2o=0 n2=600
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what are the normal alveolar pressures for the four main gases
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o2=105 co2=40 h2o=46 n2=569
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what is hypoventilation
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when there is an increase in Co2 production to Co2 ventilation. above 40
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what is hyperventilation
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when there is an decrease in co2 production to ventilation below 40
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what is a ventilation-perfusion abnormality
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a mismatch of blood supply and ventilation in the alveoli. usually has lower o2 in systemic blood and raised co2 in systemic blood
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what two ways is o2 found in the blood
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bound to hemiglobin and dissolved in the blood plasma
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how do you calculate the % saturation of o2
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o2 bound to Hb/capacity of Hb to bind x 100
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what factors contribute to the decreased affinity for o2 in hemiglobin
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DPG, H+, temp, Po2
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what are the 3 ways in which co2 is transported in the blood
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10% dissolved
30% carbamino compound 60% bicarbonate |
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what is the enzyme that catalyzes the conversion from co2 to bicarbonate
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carbonic anhydrase
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what happens to the bicarbonate ion formed by carbonic anhydrase
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leaves the red blood cell in exchange for a one CL-
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what happens to the H+ ion produced by the production of HCO3- in gas exchange
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the deoxyhemoglobin bind the H+ and act as a buffer
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what is respiratory acidosis
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increased aterial H+ due to retained Co2
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what is respiratory alkalosis
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decrease in aterial H+ due to hyperventilation
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what neurons provide the rythmic input to inspiratory muscles
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medullary inspiratory neurons
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what controls the medullary inspiratory neurons
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medulla oblongata
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from what source are inspiratory neurons modulated
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low pons (apneustic center) INHIBITION
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what modulates the apneustic center
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upper pons ( pneumotaxic center )
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during excercise what protects the lungs from over inspiration
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pulmonary strecth receptors
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what are the most important inspiratory inputs at rest to the medullary inspiratory neurons
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central chemoreceptors and peripheral chemoreceptors
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what is the stimulus for peripheral chemorecpetors
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1. decrease in arterial O2
2. increase in arterial H+ |
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what is the stimulus for central chemorecpetors
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increase in H+ in the brains extracellular fluid
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what is the major player in stimulation of respiration when arterial CO2 levels rise slightly
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central chemoreceptors 70% of response
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what are the the causes of arterial H+ changes
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metabollic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis
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in metabollic acidosis and alkalosis what receptors cause a change in ventilation
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peripheral chemoreceptors only. Co2 from the metabollic process can't cross the blood brain barrier
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what is the only factor we know about that causes increase in ventilation
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H+ from lactic acid producton. Not o2 or Co2
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what is hypoxia
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a deficiency of oxygen at the tissue level
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what is hypoxic hypoxia
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reduced arterial Po2
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what is anemic hypoxia
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reduction in o2 content of arterial blood
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ischemic hypoxia
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inadequate oxygen at the tissue level due to inadequte blood flow to the tissue
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histotoxic hypoxia
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o2 to cells is normal but toxic agent doesn't allow the cell to utilize the o2
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what is hypo/hyperkalemia
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inability to regulate K+
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what is hypo/hypercalcemia
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inability to regulate Ca++
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what is the result of renin secretion
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aldosterone secretion and Na+ conservation
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what is hemodialysis
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blood is removed from the body to be filtered and then returned
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what is peritoneal dialysis
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fluid is injected into the peritoneal cavity
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what are the components of the renal corpuscle
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glomerulus, bowman's capsule, bowmans space
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what are the components of the nephron
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renal corpuscle, renal tubule
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what are the components of the renal tubule
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proximal tubule all the way to the collecting duct
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what is ultra filtrate
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plasma without protein
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what is the function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus
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regulation of the processes ocurring in the nephron
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what is the differance in cortical nephron and a juxtamedullary nephron
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cortical=renal corpuscle is near the surface of the kidney, loop only slightly in the medulla
juxtamedullary nephron=renal corpuscle is near but not in the medulla and loop penetrates deeply |
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what is the sequance of arteries to the afferent arteriole
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renal-interlobar-arcuate-interlobular-afferent ateriol
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what is the source of the peritubular capillaries
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efferent arteriole
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what are vasa recta capillaries
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part of the paratubular capillaries that are parellel to the loop of henle
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what are the 4 functions of the kidney
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hormone secretion, rid the body of waste, maintain intra/extracelluar enviroment, site of gluconeogenisis
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what are the components of the basement membrane between the capillary endothelium and bowmans capsule
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gel (glycoprotein, laminin),thick, neg charge, barrier for proteins
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what is the typical GRF of the kidneys
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125 ml/day
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what is the typical plasma flow through the kidneys
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600ml/min
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blood flow is = to what
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plasma flow/ 1- hematocrit
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what is autoregulation
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ablility of nephrons to regulate blood flow at a constant value during changes in arterial blood pressures
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in what 2 ways is autoregulation accomplished
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myogenic hypothesis, tubuloglomerular feedback
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what is the affect on GFR when you contrict the afferent or the efferent arterioles
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afferent the GFR is decreased
efferent the GFR is increased |
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what cause the constriction of the afferent and efferent arterioles
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sympathetics, epinephrine/norepinephrine, angiotensinogenII, ADH, cortisol
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what are meangial cells
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support glomerular capillary loops and can constrict to reduce GFR in response to angiotensinogen II
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what is the opposition to constriction at afferent and efferent arterioles
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vasodilators (prostoglandins)
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what are the things that happen in the proximal tubule
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1. reabsorb 2/3 of Na+ and water+60% of K+
2. reabsorbs all filtered glucose 3. secretes metabolic end products and toxins 4. preferentially reabsorption of HCO3- |
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how does Na+ enter the interstitial fluid in the proximal tubule
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passively down electrochemical gradient
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what is the purpose of Na+/K+ pump on the basolateral side of the a proximal tubule cell
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to provide metabollic energy for Na+ reabsorption
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how and why does water enter the interstitial fluid in the proximal tubule
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water enters due to the osmotic gradient created by Na+, water enters the cell through aquaporins.
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what is the driving force for movement of water and solutes from the interstial fluid to the paratubular capillaries
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hydrostatic pressure in the interstitial is high relative to paratubular capillaries
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how is K+ reabsorbed in the proximal tubule
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concentration gradient and draged with water. not actively
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what is the result of having all the cotransporters in proximal tubule saturated
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products will be seen in the urine
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how are glucose and amino acids reabsorbedin the proximal tubule
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cotransport with Na+
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what is probenicid an example of
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a inhibitor of transporters to maintain plasma levels of drugs
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how is H+ removed from the the plasma
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coupled with Na+ in a countertransport
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if plasma H+ get to high what hormone will cause rapid removal of H+ from the kidney
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angiotensinogen II- increase in Na+ and water reabsorption to increase H+ countertransport
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how much Na+ and K+ are reabsorbed in the loop
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both 25%
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what is the net active transport of solutes in the thin portions of the loop of henle
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zero
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what happens to water in the loop of henle
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1. thin decending= very permiable
2. thin ascending= impermiable 3. thick ascending=low permiablity |
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what is the function of the thin ascending loop
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permiable to Na+ and Cl-
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what happens at the thick ascending loop
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hypoosmotic situation, low water permiablilty, but Na+, K+, Cl-
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what has a higher reabsorption of water in the decending loop. juxtamedullary or superficial nephrons
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juxdamedullary
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where is the energy supply for reabsorption of Na+ in thick ascending loop
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Na+/K+ pump on basolateral side
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how do K+ and CL- enter the cell in the Thick ascending loop
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cotrasport with Na+
some K+ re-enters the cell to keep cycle going |
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what is a diuretic
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substance that increases urine production, usually by keeping solutes in the lumin
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what are 3 ways to increase urine production
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1.diuretic
2. interfere with reabsorption-alcohol 3. ingest a loute that cannot be reabsorbed |
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what is furosemide
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drug that blocks CL- cotransport, works as a diuretic
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what is reabsorbed in the distal tubule
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Na+ cotransported with CL- driven by the pump
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what does thiazide do
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blocks the Na+ Cl- cotrasport in distal tubule
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what is the difference in Na+ and Cl- reabsorbtion in the distal tubule vs. the collecting duct
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no cotransport. Cl- is through tight junctions and Na+ is associated with K+ export
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what are potassium sparing diuretics
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drugs that effect the luminal transport of Na+ in the collecting duct. amiloride/triamterene
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how is K+ in collecting ducts when K+ is low as a result of Na+ absorption
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reabsorption by intercalated cells then K+ diffuses out the basolateral side
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what is the effect of aldosterone in the collecting duct
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secreted in response to low Na+ from that adrenal cortex to the nucleus of luminal cells to promote new Na+ transporters
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what does spironlactone do
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prevents aldosterone from entering cell nucleus
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what is the purpose of vasa recta loops around the loop of henle
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minimize the loss of solute in the interstitial fluid
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what are the steps caused by ADH
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ADH-v2-G-Phosphoralaytion resluting in more aquaporins
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what are the two functions of ADH
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Reabsorption of NaCl in the thick ascending and aquaporins in the collecting duct
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what is diabetes insipidus
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ADH cannot be released into the system=
1. lower interstital osmolarity (lack of ADH at ascending loop) 2. huge urine vol |
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what range is ADH actively secreted
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above 275 mOsm/Kg suppressed below this value
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what nerves do high pressure mechanorecpetors use
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vagus and glossopharyngeal
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what nerve does low pressure mechanoreceptors use
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vagus
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what is atrial natriuretic peptide
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ANP humoral signal produced by atrial distension. increases GFR by afferent dialation and efferent constriction
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when is renin released
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decreased NaCl to the Juxtaglomerular apparatus or decreased blood vol
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what are the activation steps of renin
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renin-peptide angiotensinogin-angiotensinogin I-angiotensinogenII-secretion of aldosterone
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what does PTH act on when ca++ plasma levels are low
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bone, kidney and intestine
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how does PTH affect the intestinal absorbtion of Ca++
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25 to 1,25 active form of vitamin D
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