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126 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What part of the Brain is activated during disgust?
The insular cortex, or insula, is strongly activated during disgust.
What part of the Brain is activated during disgust?
The insular cortex, or insula, is strongly activated during disgust.
Violent Tendencies regarding ENVIRONMENT
Adults have more control over their environment. those who are disposed to criminal behavior choose friends that heighten that tendency.
Violent Tendencies regarding GENETICS
The more a woman smoked during pregnancy, the more likely her son was to be arrested for criminal activities during adolescents and early childhood.
Boys that were taller at the age of 3 tended to be relatively fearless and aggressive at that age, and still aggressive at age 11. Perhaps fearlessness and aggressiveness had become habitual.
What's up with testosterone?
Testosterone doesn't make people pissed off all the time but it may induce people to attend longer and respond more vigorously to situations related to aggression and conflict.
Intermittent Explosive Behavior?
a condition marked by occasional outbursts of violent behavior with little or no provocation, is sometimes linked to temporal lobe epilepsy. May be triggered by a "pop" in neurons followed by a synchronous activity causing occasional emotional outbursts.
What lymbic system part is responsible for intermittent explosive behavior and why?
The amygdale in the lymbic system may account for this because it is located in the interior of the temporal lobe and is active in the amygdala during fight-like moods.
What do 5-HIAA levels reveal about 5-HT levels in the brain?
High levels of 5-HIAA reveal a great deal of serotonin release and turnover.
Turnover
turnover is the amount of release and resynthesis of a neurotransmitter by presynaptic neurons
What is the possible relationship between 5-HT levels and aggression?
The possible relationship between 5-HT relationship and aggression is that people with a history of violent behavior had low serotonin turnover and attempt suicide by violent means.
How might one’s diet influence aggression levels?
Neurons synthesize serotonin from tryptophan. A dieat high in other amino acids impairs the brain's ability to sythesize serotonin.
Why might thanksgiving feast cause aggression?
Turkey is freaking loaded with tryptophan. Usually I just pass out. But if somebody wakes me up I go crazy...like a grizzly bear.
What is more of a cause concerning depression, dopamine or serotonin?
Dopamine baby. Increasing dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens has rewarding effects, and low levels of dopamine receptor stimulation in nucleus accumbens would be expected to inhibit rewarding effects.
What is a startle reflex and what two structures are involved in eliciting this reflex after a sudden and unexpected loud noise?
The response to an unexpected loud noise is a startle reflex. Auditory info goes first to the cochlear nucleus in the medulla and from there directly to an area in the pons that commands the tensing of the muscles, especially in the neck.
What type of info does the amygdala receive?
The amygdala receives info from pain fibers as well as vision and hearing.
Where does the output from the amygdala go?
The hypothalamus. The output controls autonomic fear responses, such as increased blood pressure.
What can damage to the amygdala ensue?
Damage to the amygdlalala interferes with both the learning of fear responses and retention of fear responses learned previously.
What does Kluver-Bucy syndrome result from and what is observed in monkeys exhibiting this syndrome?
Kluver-Bucy = Damaged amygdala

Monkeys with this syndrome appear tame and placid. They attempt to pick up lit matches and other objects they would normally avoid. They display less than normal fear of snakes or larger more dominant monkeys.
By becoming less fearful do we become friendlier?
We all have a conflict about approaching other people: we desire the interaction but we are afraid of rejection. After a decrease of fear, the approach motive becomes dominant.
What are the two neurochemical messengers released from axons leaving the amygdala? What are their effects on anxiety?
CCK (cholecystokinin), which increases anxiety, and the main inhibitory transmitter is GABA, which inhibits anxiety.
How can one chemical that is used to reduce anxiety be used to increase anxiety?
I'm thinking it's the whole double negative thing...but not totally positive.
What are two classes of drugs used to decrease anxiety?
2 Classes of drugs used to decrease anxiety (Anxiolytics):
-Benzodiazepines:
-Barbituates:
At what receptor do benzodiazepines bind to and what effect dose this have on the receptor? What is this type of activity called?
Benzodiazepines bind to the GABAa receptor complex, which includes a site that binds GABA as well as sites that modify the sensitivity of the GABA site. When a benzodiazepine molecule attaches, it neither opens nor closes the chloride channel but bends the receptors so that the GABA binds more tightly. So they facilitate the effects of GABA.
Where are GABAa receptors located?
They are located in the amygdala, hypothalamus, midbrain, and several other areas.
Name a few common Benzodiazepines.
-Diazepam(Valium)
-Librium
-Xanax
What are the effects of benzodiazepines when acting on GABAA receptors in the A) amygdala and B) thalamus and cortex?
Effects of benzos when acting on GABAa receptors in Amygdala: Decreases learned shock avoidance behaviors, relaxes the muscles, and increases social approaches to others
-Benzos effects with thalamus and cerebral cortex: induces sleepiness, blocks epileptic convulsions, and impairs memory.
What can occur when someone consumes both alcohol and a benzodiazepine?
Mixing alcohol and benzodiazepines depresses body activities and brain functioning more severely than either drug alone would aka: can be fatal.
Ro15-4513?
Ro15-4513 blocks the effects of alcohol on motor coordination, its depressant action on the brain, and its ability to reduce anxiety. Could be the "sober up" pill but too dangerous. (I say proceed to human testing just not on alcoholics.)
What is psychoneuroimmunology?
(siko-newro-immune-ology)

*looks like what I found in my alphabet cereal.
The study of the relationship between the nervous system and the immune system. The ways in which experiences, especially stressful ones, alter the immune system and how the immune system in turn influences the central nervous system.
What is posttraumatic stress disorder?
PTSD: Reaction to a very traumatic experience. With exaggerated arousal in response to noises and other stimuli. Lasts at least one month. Flashbacks, nightmares, avoidance with reminders to it.
What is the main point from disclaimers 2 and 3? (lecture) Another point worth noting is that while our theories of brain change, the brain doesn’t.
Disclaimers 2 and 3: Most psych concepts of memory deal with the mind, a theoretical construct.
Psych theories are then matched up to the brain, which is physical, so care should be taken not to assign metaphysical properties to something with real physical properties.
What is an engram?
The physical representation of what has been learned.
What did Lashley do in an attempt to prove (or disprove) the existence of engrams?
Lashley attempted to cut cortical connections that represented learned responses and abolish the learned responses, in that the region may simply be part of circuitry necessary to evoke the response.
What is the main point of the section titled “The Modern Search for the Engram”?
Main point of “Modern Search for the Engram”: sought Engram of memory not in cortex but in the cerebellum…Classical Conditioning of eyelid responses…looked for activity in various brain cells to determine which ones changed their responses during learning.
Short Term Memory?
Short-Term Memory: Working Memory: memory of events that have just occurred.
Memories fade quickly if not rehearsed.
Long Term Memory?
Long-Term memory: Reference Memory: permanently or semi-permanently stored information.
Working Memory?
The way we store information while we are working with it or attending to it. Memories held “online” while being used.
Three components of Working Memory...
1. Phonological Loop: which stores auditory information, including words
2. Visuospation sketchpad: which stores visual information
3. Central Executive: which directs attention toward one stimulus or another and determines which items will be stored in working memory.
What type of memories are mediated by the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus?
The main problem that occurred when the hippocampus, amygdala, and other nearby structures in the temporal cortex were removed from both hemispheres there was a loss of memories for events that happened after brain damage (anterograde amnesia) and loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before brain damage (retrograde amnesia).
In addition to broad memory loss, what other symptoms occur?
Confusion, depression, restlessness, hallucinations, delusions, sleeplessness, and loss of appetite.
What are plaques and tangles? Which is formed by amyloid-beta and which is formed by tau protein?
Amyloid protien produces plaques, structures formed from degenerating axons and dendrites. Plaques accumulate in the spaces between neurons.
Tau protien produces tangles, structures formed from degenerating structures within neuronal cell bodies.
What causes the formation of amyloid-beta (also known as amyloid beta protein 42 and amyloid-beta)?
Amyloid-beta protein 42 accumulates, clumps with other A-beta42 molecules, and damages the membranes of axons and dendrites.
What is a Hebbian synapse?
Hebbian Synapse: A synapse that increases in effectiveness because of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and post synaptic neurons.
Long-Term Potentiation [LTP]
One or more axons connected to a dendrite bombard it with a brief but rapid series of stimuli - such as 100 per second for 1 to 4 seconds. The burst of intense stimulation leaves some of the synapses potentiated (more responsive to new input of the same type) for minutes, days, or weeks.
LTP Specificity:
If some of the synapses onto a cell have been highly active and others have not, only the active ones become strengthened.
LTP Cooperativity
Nearly simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons produces LTP much more strongly than does repeated stimulation by just one axon.
LTP Associativity
Pairing a weak input with a strong input enhaves later response to the weak input. The synapses subject to LTP are like Hebbian synapses, except that LTP requires only the depolarization of a dendrite, not necessarily an action potential.
The AMPA receptor:
Is excited by the neurotransmitter glutamate, but it can also respond to a drug called a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid.
The NMDA receptor:
is also ordinarily excited only by glutamate, but it can respond to a drug called N-methyl-D-aspartate.
What parts of the brain send information between the two hemispheres? What is lateralization?
CORPUS CALLOSUM: The left and right hemispheres exchange information through a set of axons called the corpus callosum

Lateralization: the division of labor between the two hemispheres.
How may severing the corpus callosum reduce epileptic seizures?
One benefit is that, as predicted, the person's epileptic seizures affect only half the body.
What abilities appear to be retained after surgery (the cutting of the corpus collosum)?
they maintain their intellect and motivation

they still walk without difficulty

they also use two hands together on familiar tasks and use them in ways others can’t
Split brain patients...
Split-brain patients can use their two hands independently in a way that other people cannot.
What is Aphasia?
Severe language impairment.
Broca's Area
a part of the frontal lobe of the left cerebral cortex near the motor cortex, which is now known as Broca's area.
Damage to just the Broca's Area?
this damage only produces minor or brief language impairment; serious deficits result from extensive damage that extends into other areas as well.
What is Broca’s aphasia caused by?
When people with brain damage suffer serious impairment of language production, we call it Broca's Aphasia, or nonfluent aphasia.
Describe some of the characteristics of Broca’s aphasia regarding language production and grammar comprehension.
When people with Broca's aphasia speak, they omit most pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, quantifiers, and tense and number endings.

-speak slowly and inarticulate
-have trouble writing and gesturing
-grammar comprehension is comparable to normal people who are distracted.
What is Wernicke’s aphasia and how is this different from Broca’s aphasia?
Wernicke’s Aphasia: Impaired ability to remember the names of objects and impaired language comprehension.
-Is different than Broca’s aphasia because they can still speak smoothly, whereas Broca’s aphasia is considered nonfluent and Wernicke’s is fluent.
The typical characteristics of Wernicke's aphasia are as follows:
1. Articulate Speech
2. Difficulty finding the right word
3. Poor language comprehension
1. In contrast to people with Broca's aphasia, those with Wernicke's aphasia speak fluently, exvcept for pauses to try to think of the name of something.
2. People with Wernicke's aphasia have anomia, difficulty recaling the names of objects.
3. People with Wernicke'saphasia have great trouble understanding spoken and written speech and-in the case of deaf people-sign language.
What is ADHD?
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder is characterized by attention deficits, hyperactivity, impulsiveness, mood swings, short temper, high sensitivity to stress, and impair ability to make and follow plans.
What are three ways that ADHD can be measured and what are the typical results of individuals with ADHD in these tasks?
1.The Choice Delay Task: This tasks helps indicate impulsiveness

2.The stop signal Task: This tasks shows whether trouble with inhibiting behavior

3.The Attentional Blink Task: shows trouble controlling attention
What are two psychostimulants that have been found to treat ADHD?
Adderrall and Ritalin
What is the book’s definition of alcoholism?
continued use of alcohol despite medical or social harm, even after people have decided to quit or decrease their drinking. It does not necessarily require sever deterioration…The deciding factor is whether the alcohol interferes with the person’s life.
What effects does alcohol have on the brain?
Alcohol inhibits the flow of sodium across the membrane, expands the surface of membranes, decreases serotonin activity, and facilitates response by the GABAa receptor, blocks glutamate receptors, and increases dopamine activity.
What are the two types of alcoholism?
Type I (Type A) Alcoholism:
-Later onset, usually after 25
-Gradual onset
-Fewer genetic relatives with alcoholism
-Men and Women usually equal
-Generally less severe
and the second type of alcoholism?
Type II (Type B):
-Earlier onset before 25 years
-More rapid onset, more genetic relatives with alcoholism
-Men far more than women
-Often severe; often associated with criminality
and what is your favorite color?
hardy har har. just kidding.
What are the steps in breaking down ethyl alcohol to acetic acid?
After someone drink ethyl alcohol, enzymes in the liver metabolize it to acetaldehyde, a poisonous substance. An enzyme, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, then converts acetaldehyde to acetic acid, a chemical that the body can use as a source of energy.
do people from China and Japan have a high risk hangover-like symptoms even if they drink relatively little alcohol?
About half of the people in China and Japan have a gene that slows acetaldehyde metabolism; probably for that reason, alcohol abuse has historically been uncommon in those countries.
How does Antabuse work?
The drug disulfiram, which goes by the trade name Antabuse, antagonizes the effects of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase by binding to its copper ion.
According to the DSM-IV, what are common symptoms of major depression?
People with a major depression feel sad and helpless every day for weeks at a time. They have little energy, feel worthless, contemplate suiced, have trouble sleeping, cannot concentrate, get little pleasure from sex or food, and many cases can hardly even imagine being happy again.
Why do you suppose that researchers study genes related to serotonin?
They study genes related to serotonin because a particular form of one’s gene leads to an 80% decrease in the brain’s ability to produce serotonin.
What general characteristic is found in regard to left and right hemisphere activity in patients with major depression?
People with MD have decreased activity in the left hemisphere and increased activity in the right prefrontal cortex
People look to the right during verbal tasks, whereas depressed people look to the left, suggesting right-hemisphere dominance
Antidepressants drugs fall into four major categories...
Tricyclics, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [SSRIs], Monoamine oxidase inhibitors [MAOIs], and Atypical antidepressants.
Tricyclics...
e.g., imipramine, trade name Tofranil) operate by preventing the presynaptic neuron from reabsorbing serotonin, dopamine, or norepinephrine after releasing them; thus, the neurotransmitters remainlonger in the synaptic cleft and continue stimulation the postsynaptic cell.
SSRIs...
Similar to tricyclics but specific to the neurotransmitter serotonin. (e.g., Prozac: blocks the reuptake of serotonin.)
MAOIs...
(e.g., Nardil) block the enzyme monoamine oxidase, a presynaptic terminal enzyme that metabolizes catecholamines and serotonin into inavtive forms. When MAOIs block this enzyme, the presynaptic terminal has more of its transmitter available for release.
Atypical Antidepressants...
are a miscellaneous group of drugs with antidepressant effects and mild side effects. (Wellbutrin), which inhibits reuptake of dopamine and to some extent norepinephrine but not serotonin.
SNRI...
Selective serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors
Triple Reuptake Inhibitors
New, block reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.

-relatively lower blockade of serotonin transporters
-enhanced availability of dopamine
-Functional TRIL take Wellbutrin and Prozac
Kalat summarizes two main theories about how antidepressants work. What are they?
1. Neurons in part of hippocampus and cerebral cortex shrink in some people with depression, so when drugs increase release neurotransmitters, axons release BDNF which aid in survival, growth, and connections of neurons.
Kalats reason two for about how antidepressants work
2. Thinks that antidepressants desensitize the autoreceptors on the presynaptic neuron, result is to increase the release of serotonin and other neurotransmitters
What is bipolar disorder (also referred to as manic-depressive disorder)?
People alternate between two poles--depression and its opposite, mania.
Mania...
characterized by restless activity, excitement, laughter, self-confidence, rambling speech, and loss of inhibitions.
Unipolar disorder...
vary between normality and one pole -- depression.
What are the two types of Bipolar disorder?
Bipolar I Disorder: people who have full-blown episodes of mania.
and the second form of bipolar
Bipolar II disorder: have much milder manic phases, called hypomania, which are characterized mostly by agitation or anxiety.
Other symptoms of Bipolar Disorder?
Psychosis may accompany the disorder, auditory hallucinations, delusions.
Lithium, valproate (Depakote) and carbamazepine are common treatments for bipolar disorder. What is their likely mechanism of action?
All three drugs block the synthesis of a rain chemical called arachidonic acid, which is produced during brain inflammation. The effects of arachidonic acid are also counteracted by polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as those in seafood, and epidemiological studies suggest that people who eat at least a pound of seafood per week have a decreased risk of bipolar disorder.
Aside from these compounds, what are other drug classes that are used to treat bipolar disorder?
ETC perhaps...

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
Applied every other day for two weeks
Memory loss can be a side-effect (limited if shock is given to right hemisphere only.
What was schizophrenia first called? Who called it this and why?
Schizophrenia was first called Demetia Praecox: Given by Kraeplin because it was identified as brain disease with psychotic disturbances and agitation.

Named it Dementia Praecox: because it means premature mental deterioration
Who named this disease “schizophrenia”? Why?
Bleuler names it schizophrenia because he didn’t think it was degenerative like Alzheimer’s dementia does…and that it was split psychic function and classified positive and negative symptoms. (Greek for Split Mind)
-Split between the emotional and intellectual aspects of experience
What are the three classes of symptoms in schizophrenia?
Positive: addition of symptoms like auditory hallucinations and delusions
Negative: Lack of emotional response, lack of pleasure and decreased movement
Cognitive: Impaired cognitive functioning, impaired memory, attention and executive functioning.
What are functional outcomes? Provide a couple of examples.
Gaining employment, social interactions, simple daily activities.
What is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task and what region of the brain may mediate performance on this task?
Wisconsin Card Sorting Task: Behavioral test measuring the functioning of the prefrontal cortex. They are asked to sort the cards according to a specific rule.
wisconsin card test continued....
people with damage to the prefrontal cortex can follow the first rule of sorting the cards but have difficulty forgetting that rule and following the next when sorting the words. Schizophrenics have the same problem.
How prevalent is schizophrenia? How does the prevalence of this disease compare to other CNS disorders?
About 1% of people suffer from schizophrenia at any given time.

People with depression usually have delusions, but they are the opposite of grandiose: like guilt or failure…Some also report hallucinations.

Brain damage to the temporal or prefrontal cortex can produce symptoms like shizo…
-Hearing Impairment and troubles can resemble schizo symptoms
-Huntington’s Disease symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking, as well as motor symptoms.
What is the neurodevelopmental hypothesis?
Schizophrenia is based on abnormalities in the prenatal or neonatal development of the nervous system, which lead to subtle abnormalities of brain anatomy and major abnormalities in behavior.
Which structure in the brain is consistently abnormal in schizophrenia?
Hippocampal dysfunction and reduced size is consistently abnormal in schizophrenia
Note: The textbook is a bit more conservative when relating structural abnormalities from schizophrenia. (see backside)(hahaha, only funny cuz it's getting late)
None of the structures are greatly altered in schizophrenic patients. The region I will describe in lecture is consistently found, the observed reduction in volume is not profound.
How and where is dopamine and glutamate abnormal in the brain of individuals with schizophrenia?
-Too much dopamine in limbic system
-Too little dopamine in prefrontal cortex
-Too little glutamate in prefrontal cortex
Two major dopamine pathways:
-The path to the basal ganglia is associated with a movement disorder
-Overactivity of the mesolimbocortical system is linked to schizophrenia symptoms
Describe the non-medicinal methods that were once used (or may still be used) for schizophrenia?
Lobotomies were used to calm patients by cutting frontal lobes. Ice pick lobotomies used transorbitally…through the eyeballz (seriously. cognitive thought out the window on this ideas conception.) (personal anecdote)
What are the two classes of antipsychotic drugs and which symptoms of schizophrenia are they effective for?
Typical Antipsychotic drugs and Atypical Antipsychotic drugs.
Effective for what punk?
Typical Antipsychotic drugs: -Effective for selectively blocking dopamine D2 receptors and treat mainly positive symptoms.--Reduce dopamine transmission in limbic system
-Produce extrapyramidal side effects: Basically drug induced Parkinson’s
and Atypical???????
Ex: of Atypical Antipsychotics: Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) and Haloperidol
Clozapine was first:
-Used to treat positive, negative and cognitive symptoms
-Weaker blockade of D2 receptors
-Reduce dopamine transmission in limbic system
-Increase dopamine transmission in prefrontal cortex
-Less likely to produce extrapyramidal side effects
What is environmental neurotoxicology?
The study of how substances in our environment can damage the nervous system.
How may substances damage the nervous system? (4 ways)
1. Neuronopathy: neuronal death or damage
2. Axonopathy: Destruction of axons
3. Myelinopathy: Destruction of myelin sheathing
4. Transmission Toxicities: Interference with neurotransmission
What are the neurotoxicological effects of sarin? When does death occur?
Sarin: Massive inhibition of acetylcholinesterase causing increase in acetylcholine, leading to muscle constriction
-Death occurs with 75-85% inhibition of AChE from suffocation (inhalation deadliest exposure route)
What neurological motor disorder have many pesticides been found to produce?
Pesticides have been found to produce tremors, chest pain, proximal joint pain, causes Parkinson-like symptoms and disrupts endocrine system that is important for growth.
What are endocrine disruptors and in what materials are they found?
Endocrine Disruptors are chemicals that disrupt the endocrine system that is important for growth and reproductive system functioning, and metabolism.
what materials are endocrine disruptors found in?
-Found in pesticides, flame retardants, plastics, and detergents.
What do heavy metals compete with in the body?
Heavy metals compete with Ca+ in the body and brain.
Lead: TV's, monitors, pipes, dust from old buildings, arsenic, mercury, thallium, cadmium. Good stuff. Children have attention, learning, and memory deficits.
Why is it likely that survivors, volunteers and anyone else nearby the 9/11 attack will have long term health effects?
Thousands of volunteers, survivors, ect were exposed to dust and debris of any of the materials used in the twin towers. Nearly 100 chemicals were found in the debris that are known to produce neurotoxicological effects
-Acute effects: respiratory problems, PTSD
some of the nastiness that they were exposed to...during 9/11
asbestos, benzene,cadmium, chromium, dioxin, lead, PCB's, particulate matter (both large and small forms), and polycylcic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Effective for what punk?
Typical Antipsychotic drugs: -Effective for selectively blocking dopamine D2 receptors and treat mainly positive symptoms.--Reduce dopamine transmission is limbic system
-Produce extrapyramidal side effects: Basically drug induced Parkinson’s
and Atypical???????
Ex: of Atypical Antipsychotics: Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) and Haloperidol
Clozapine was first:
-Used to treat positive, negative and cognitive symptoms
-Weaker blockade of D2 receptors
-Reduce dopamine transmission in limbic system
-Increase dopamine transmission in prefrontal cortex
-Less likely to produce extrapyramidal side effects
What is environmental neurotoxicology?
The study of how substances in our environment can damage the nervous system.
How may substances damage the nervous system? (4 ways)
1. Neuronopathy: neuronal death or damage
2. Axonopathy: Destruction of axons
3. Myelinopathy: Destruction of myelin sheathing
4. Transmission Toxicities: Interference with neurotransmission
What are the neurotoxicological effects of sarin? When does death occur?
Sarin: Massive inhibition of acetylcholinesterase causing increase in acetylcholine, leading to muscle constriction
-Death occurs with 75-85% inhibition of AChE from suffocation (inhalation deadliest exposure route)
What neurological motor disorder have many pesticides been found to produce?
Pesticides have been found to produce tremors, chest pain, proximal joint pain, causes Parkinson-like symptoms and disrupts endocrine system that is important for growth.
What are endocrine disruptors and in what materials are they found?
Endocrine Disruptors are chemicals that disrupt the endocrine system that is important for growth and reproductive system functioning, and metabolism.
what materials?
-Found in pesticides, flame retardants, plastics, and detergents.
What do heavy metals compete with in the body?
Heavy metals compete with Ca+ in the body and brain.
Lead: TV's, monitors, pipes, dust from old buildings, arsenic, mercury, thallium, cadmium. Good stuff. Children have attention, learning, and memory deficits.
Why is it likely that survivors, volunteers and anyone else nearby the 9/11 attack will have long term health effects?
Thousands of volunteers, survivors, ect were exposed to dust and debris of any of the materials used in the twin towers. Nearly 100 chemicals were found in the debris that are known to produce neurotoxicological effects
-Acute effects: respiratory problems, PTSD
some of the nastiness that they were exposed to...
asbestos, benzene,cadmium, chromium, dioxin, lead, PCB's, particulate matter (both large and small forms), and polycylcic aromatic hydrocarbons.