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108 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Anabolic
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need energy
endegonic(+delta G), Delta S decreases, for growth, repair synthesize starch, glycogen) |
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Catabolic
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releases free Energy
exegonic(-delta G), Delta S increases, provides bio-synthesis, precursor for Anaerobic,Aerobic hydrolysis of macromolecules or biological oxidation |
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Anaerobic/Aerobic
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based on oxygen
Mitochondria is oxygen dependent |
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linkage of Anabolism, Catabolism through ATP
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linkage through prod. of ATP. ATP is used in various stages in anabolism.(carbs, fats, proteins)
ATP/ADP pairing linked |
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catabolism energy yielding
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Energy yielding metabolism,utilizes energy, provides heat, gives out metabolic products
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universal energy coupler
removal of terminal phosphate |
term. phosphate can be removed fairly easy>b.c. of neg charge on the phosphate group. >lots of free -e are delocalized and arrange themselves> delocalized >lowest energy state.>resonance stabilization.
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3rd phosphate -7.3kcal
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3rd phosphate undergoes hydrolysis ATP to form ADP> highly exergonic>>(delta G)-7.3 kcal
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phosphate and its electron delocalization
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`highly exergonic because of charge repulsion- each phosphate has a neg. charge because of pH of the cell.
resonance stabilization.> electrons delocalized over bond> lowest energy state>electrons are deloc. and rearrange themselves |
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ATP/ADP Position donor acceptor
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occupies an intermediate position, therefore it can serve as a phosphate donor or acceptor.ATP donates phosphates with less free energy.ADP accepts phosphate from those of higher free energy>>>-7.3 is middle
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exergonic transfer of phosphate groups
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has lots of free energy
PEP(pyruvate) transfers its phosphate group exergonicaly onto ADP to form ATP,and ATP can phosphorylate glucose Exergonicaly but reverse reaction is not possible endproduct is G6P |
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ATP /ADP transfer and release of energy within a cell
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( reversible means of conserving), transferring and releasing energy within the cell. As catabolic processes in the cell the energy released is coupled to ATP/ADP system such as the free energy drives the formation of ATP.ATP is used to do work
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ATP creation during oxidative catabolic state
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ATP is generated during the oxidative catabolism of nutrients and is used to do cellular work
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Production of ATP during anaerobic state and end result of yeast , humans...
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other organisms (bacteria): prod. ethanol. Co2 =end product
in higher organisms > lactate is the end product + heavy exercise(humans) generates modest ATP to do work |
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In Aerobic condition /creation of ATP
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presence of oxygen, ATP is 20 x higher per glucose molecule, nutrients are catabolized to Co2 and H2O, releases heat in liver
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oxidation reduction
oxidation is loss ,reduction is gain... |
of electrons and protons
all oxidizable compounds that undergo highly exergonic reactions |
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reduction
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addition of electrons / protons in the endergonic process. hydrogenation.(to bond with hydrogen)
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oxidation
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dehydrogenation/exergonic
electrons removed/protons liberated |
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electron acceptors
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final electron acceptor , oxygen-
via intermediates as NAD+(coenzyme)>they function with enzymes as electron carriers or small function groups NAD+------>NADH + H+ |
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cofactors in org. minerals...
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assist in enzyme function(Mg,Iron)
act as electron carriers. |
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glucose
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most important oxidizable substrate in metabolism,
main blood sugar comes from plentiful dietary sources one half of the plant ,disaccharide , sucrose(source) glucose is an aldohexose> a 6 carbon sugar with a terminal carbonyl group. |
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alpha D glucose
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the repeating unit of starch and glycogen .hydroxyl group points downwards
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Beta D glucose
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the repeating unit of cellulose
hydroxyl group points upwards |
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glycolysis. production of ATP molecule
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Anaerobic
most energy without oxygen highly exergonic= -686kcal not in mitochondria, but in cytoplasm -delta G |
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Glycolysis Pyruvic acid
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glucose is broken down into two mol. of pyruvic acid>occurs in the cytoplasm of animal cells plant cells, org. 6 enzymes work in the metabolic pathways. 6 carbon molecule is split into two 3 carbon molecules>each,part. oxid.to generate 2 ATP molecules per glucose
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1 and 3 step of glycolysis
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ATP energizes molecules, 2 ATP mol. are expended. 6 carbon molecule splits into two 3 carbon comp.-->and form pyruvic acid
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glycolysis latter stage
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4 ATP molec. are synth.2 ATP{ molc. are used.net gain 2 ATP.
Another reaction of glycolysis->NAD > to NADH NADH coenzyme will later be used |
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during glycolysis how many NADH are produced
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2
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glycolysis is inefficient because
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because much of cell energy remains in 2 molecules of pyruvic acid
does not use any oxygen,> anaerobic> for bacteria and fermentation yeast> glycolysis is the only source of energy |
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overview of glycolysis
phase 1 preparation and cleavage |
glucose + 2 ATP = 2 G3P + 2 ADP
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phase 2 oxidation and ATP generation
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G3P + NAD (+) +ADP+ P>NADH (+) + ATP
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PHase 3
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Pyruvate formation and ATP generation: = Pyruvate + ATP
4 produced , 2 used |
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overall reaction from 1 to 10
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=>2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP
net prod. is 2 mol. of ATP+2 mol. of pyruvate!! |
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from glycolysis(pyruvate) in Aerobic condition..
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O2 present, Pyruvate is conv. to Acetyl CoA.
here the pyruvate is Oxidized(NAD =>NADH) looses 1 carbon which turns to co2 and leaves the cell |
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Anaerobe condition
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no O2 , pyruvate is red. so that (NADH can be oxidized to.NAD) Lactate(animals)
ethanol and Co2 in (Plant cells and yeasts) |
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glycolysis vs. glycogenesis
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reciprocal regulation via allosteric activation and inhibition
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AMP
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Activates glycolysis but inhibits glyconeogenesis (allosteric regulation)
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when (ATP)is low and AMP is high,..
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then the cell is on low energy>AMP activates glycolysis and inhibits Gluconeogenesis
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Gluconeogenesis
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is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids.
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If ATP is high and and AMP decreases
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than the glycolysis is inhibited and Gluconeogenesis is activated.
AMP will activate glycolysis to produce ATP>dependent on ratio of ATP |
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cori cycle
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link between glycolysis in muscle cells and Gluconeogenesis in the liver.
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glycolysis
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) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy compounds ATP and NADH
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Cori cycle
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muscle get ATP from glycolysis,in Anaerobic period.
lactate is transported by blood to liver>reoxidized to pyruvate. Pyruvate is substrate for gluconeogenesis in liver.>generates glucose and >back to blood |
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Aerobic respiration
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cell. respiration , flow of electrons through or within a membrane,from reduced coenzyme to an electron acceptor, usually generates ATP
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ELectron acceptors
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NADH, FADH, Coenzyme Q(ubiquinone) are aerobic
Anaerobes are S (sulfur)/H2s(hydrogen sulfide), H+/H2, Fe3/fe2 |
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role of mitochondria in cellular respiration
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oxidation of glucose & other sugars begins in cytosol with glycolysis producing pyruvate
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pyruvate transported across membrane...
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across inner mitoch. memb. and is oxydized within the matrix to acetyl CoA.>primary substrate for TCA cycle. Acetyl CoA can also be formed by B oxidation of fatty acids.
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electron transport in mitochondria
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is is coupled to proton pumping , with the energy of electron transport conserved as an electrochemical proton gradient across the membrane of the mitochondria.
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Synthesis of ATP from ADP +P
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the energy of the proton gradient is used to drive the synthesis.
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Electron transport chain
Oxygen |
terminal electron acceptor(O2)
allows for continues redoxidation of NADH and other reduced Coenzymes. |
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coenzymes accept ...
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electrons during the stepwise oxidation of organic intermediates
derived from pyruvate. electron are then transferred to O2 via membrane bound electron carriers> indirectly generating ATP |
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regulation of TCA cycle
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allosterically regulated.
All 4 NADH generating enzymes are inhibited by NADH Allosteric regulation occurs via NADH, ATP, and acetyl COA ar various points. High AMP=High PDH High ATP=Low PDH High ADP =High Isocitrate High NADH= Low isocitrate |
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summery of the TCA cycle
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Glucose produces 4 ATP >2 from glycolysis and 2 from TCA
10 NADH that give@3 ATPs= 30 ATP 2 FADH taht give 4 ATPs and byproduct of 6 CO2 |
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overview: TCA cycle
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Acetate enters TCA cycle as acetyl CoA and is joined to a 4 carbon acceptor(oxaloacetate) to form citrate>a 6 carbon molecule
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decarboxylation of TCA
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occurs at 2 steps in the cycle so that the input of two carbons is balanced by the loss of two carbons as CO2
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TCA cycle oxidation occurs where?
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at 4 steps, with NAD+ as the electron acceptor in 3 reactions and FAD as electron acceptor in one case
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TCA cycle ATP generation
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ATP generated at 1 point with GTP as the intermediate (in animal cells)
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TCA cycle oxaloacetate
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one turn of cycle is completed upon regeneration of ocxaloacetate, the original 4 carbon acceptor
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MITOCHONDRIA
outer membrane |
phospholipid synthesis
fatty acid desaturation fatty acid elongation |
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Inner membrane
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electron transport
Oxidative phosphorilation metabolite transport |
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Matrix
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Pyruvate oxidation
TCA cycle Beta oxidation of fats DNA replication RNA synthesis (transcription)protein synthesis |
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mitochondria and the pyruvate
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Pyruvate has to cross the outer membrane to get into mitoch.
Electron transport chain in inner membrane of the cristae> Matrix side of TCA cycle> cant happen without pyruvate oxidation |
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F1 and F0 complex
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Each F0 and F1 complex is attached together by a protein stalk, they constitute a functional ATP synthase
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elctron transport chain
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electron transport chain H+ gradient
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H+ is pumped into intermediate membrane space>ATP is produced in membrane
inside membrane: hydrophobic transport electron through membrane allows for H+ gradient>ATP synthesis |
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number of electron carriers
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1 flavoprotien
2 iron sulfur protein 3 cytochromes 4 copper containing cytocranes5 5 co enzyme Q (quinone) 2 3 4 contain a prosthetic group |
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Iron sulfur protein
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deals with FADH2
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cyanide
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stops electron transfer
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electron transport chain summary cristae
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-occurs in cristae
-in cristae: cytochromes and coenzymes >act as carrier molecules and transfer molecules. these accept high energy electrons and pass it along energy of electrons transports protons across membrane in to outer compartment of mitoch. |
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electron transport chain overall
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prod. of cellular respiration
h2o, CO2 , 34 ATP from each molecule of glucose +4 atp= 38 |
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chemiosmosis H gradient
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ref to movem. of protein across the membrane to generate ATP
pumping protons from the inner to the outer compartment(memb. of mito.) A gradient is est.H+ go down the gradient> generate ATP using ADP + P. |
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Chemiosmosis
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38 molecule ATP> cannot be stroed for long time
cellular respiration must continue to regenrate ATP.Each ATP releases 7.3 Kcal of energie |
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intracellular components
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many metabolic processes in cells
involves in bio synthesis and trafficking must be tightly regulated> so each received necessary components |
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rough ER
smooth ER |
protein synthesis, processing and sorting
detox, prod. of lipids.phospholipids, steroids, hydrolysis of glycogen |
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endosomes
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sorting of materials entering the cell by endocytosis from lysosomes
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Lysosomes
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digestion of unwanted material
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Peroxisomes
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house peroxide generating reactions essential role in fatty acid oxidation
bio synthesis of lipid membranes |
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endomembrane system consist of
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rough and smooth ER
Golgi apparatus endosomes lysosomes nuclear envelope allows for continuous transport of materials through the cell |
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intracellular compartments
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rough ER is connected to nucleus
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rough ER
Flattened SAC |
biosyn. and processing of protein-membrane bound
Physiological Sac: Ribosomes face from lumen.Contain rRNA |
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rough ER
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contain transitional elements-transition vesicles shuttle lipids and proteins to golgi complex
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rough ER in organelle structure and membranes
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used for organelle structure & function,(for enzyme) plasma membrane) some exported out of cell
adds carbohydrate groups to proteins-glycolysilation recognition and removal of misfolded polypeptides. (ERAD) |
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smooth ER
drug tetox |
P450enzyme (in liver)adds a hydroxyl (OH) group to a large, hydrophobic molecule.
hydroxylated drugs eliminated cause they are more water soluble |
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smooth ER carcinogens p450
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different P450 adds OH to polycyclic molecule using aryl hydrocarbon hydoxylase (AHH) converts pot. carcinogens to active forms
smoking increases activity of AHH |
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SMOOTH ER
carbohydrate metabolism |
removes a phosphate from glucose
dephosphorilization allows glucose to leave cell via channel protein (permease) G6p high in liver, kidney and intestinal cells,low in brain and muscle>L: they need G6p for their own need |
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Smooth ER
and its calcium storage |
calcium storage >pumps CA++ to SR
membrane produc. > most phosphor lipids derived from smooth ER > req. flipase enzyme to export across the ER memb.into cytosol. |
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golgi complex
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loc. near ER (CGN=cis golgi network) assc. with nucleus
TGN (trans ) faces away from the ER |
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transport through golgi complex
stationary |
each compartment is stable structure shuttle vesiceles bud from one cisterna and fuse with next
cis to trans |
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cisternal maturation
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cisternae are transient complexes that alternante between CGN and TGN from cis to trans> froms and releases vesicle
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protein glycolysation
glucan synthatase |
proteins become glycosilated
2 main enzymes :glycon synthasase=catalize formation of oglisaccarides |
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glycosyl transfease
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attach carbohydrate group to protein
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protein trafficking
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constitutive secretion: prod. of mucus, trachea, ongoing process>does not regulated secretion does req.external stimulus. ( neurotransmitters, hormones)
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exocytosis
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polarized secretion, the process is dependent on CA++
thought to activate protein kinase signal is usually a neuro transmitter hormones NT activate second messengers |
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endocytosys
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invaginated vesicle develops into early endosome
from plasma membrane back into the cell >retro>transport enzyme is precursor to lysosomes |
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phagocytosis
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removes toxic particles , include neutrophils and macrophages,bind to surface
synthesize toxic levels of h2o2 |
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receptor mediated endocytosys
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also called clathyndependent endocytosis
ingests hormones and enzymes,growth factors ,LDL, receptor mediated uncoated vesicle fuses with TGN to form early endosome>developes to lysosome |
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receptor mediated endocytosis
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hetrophage lysosome out side of cell
auto phage from inside the cellclathryn coated pits. |
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formation of lysosomes
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involved in nutrition , defense, recycling differentiation
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central nervous system
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brain and spinal cord
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peripheral nervous system
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sympatic parasympatic enteric
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autonomic nervous system
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invouluntary
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somatic nervous system voluntary
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motor pathways automatic and somatic
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structure of nerv cell
dendrite |
contain receptors > neurotransmitters
> has nucleus Soma>leads to axon |
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axon (generating and conducting region)
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axon hillick >generates impulse nerve of Ranvier
direction from axon to axonal terminal solitary conduction electronic conduction |
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membrane poteintial
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inside neg. resting potentail > membrane potential
-70 m volts is negative to respect of outside |
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resting membrane potential
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if neuron is not sending a signal >its at rest
inside is neg. to outside. K+ can cross easy CL- and NA+ have more difficult time neg. charged protein molecules inside the neurone cannot cross the membrane |
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resting membrane potential
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contain NA+ K+ pumps
uses 3 ATP to simultaneously pump 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 K+ in selective permeable NA/K ATP ase pump restores the membrane potential |
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resting membrane potential
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at rest membrane allows to leakage down the gradient
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resting membrane potential
overall |
K+ passes easy
CL- and NA+ have difficulties neg . charged protein mol. (A-) cannot pass membrane NA+K+ATPase moves 3 NA+ out for 2 K+> imbalabce called resting membrane potential |
