Phonological Development

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Speech

Back 1

an organized set system of sounds used to convey meaning

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Articulation

Back 2

The act of producing speech sounds

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Phonetics

Back 3

The production, acoustic characteristics, and perception of speech sounds
The study of speech sounds and their production

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Phonology

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-sound system of a language; how sounds represent meaning
- specifically the more abstract, language sound system
- sometimes phonetics & phonology undifferentiated

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- We use virgules/slashes to enclose sounds we are referring to in the.....

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abstract (or how it is said) e.g., /t/, /pIk/

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We use brackets to indicate the symbols....

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for the words or sounds
e.g., [p I k] [t] [ʤ ^ ʤ] [j u]

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Model/ theories of phonological development must account for...

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-mismatches btw child output and adult input
-generalities that span kids sound system
-changes that occur in children's speech over time

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Theoretical Perspectives:
The list in B, B & F

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Behaviorist - reinforcement,
Generative phonology - Chomsky underlying rep, surface rep, phonological rules
Natural phonology - Marked sounds are simplified gradually less, assumes adult underlying rep.
Nonlinear phonology - tier theory. 1)prosodic 2)segmental 3)geometry
Optimality - Best alternative production selected based on constraints (level of proficiency)
Sonority - accounting for allowable sound sequences in a syllable that are easiest to say
Psycholinguistic models - Is there one lexicon OR two (input & output)

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Unmarked
Marked sounds

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Unmarked - easy, occur in more languages, accurately produced earlier.
Marked sounds - difficult,

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What are phonological processes?

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1: Patterns of errors compared to idealized adult pronunciations.Simplification of a sound class in which target sounds are systematically deleted, omitted, and/or substituted
2: Some descriptor names (processes) are interchangeable, depending on source. Studied by a variety of researchers.
3: Typically suppressed or eliminated by ages 5/6
4: Can be idiosyncratic but typically fit certain descriptors

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There are 3 major types of phonological processes

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1) Assimilation processes/patterns - One sound influences another
2) Substitution processes - Systematic sound replacements - that affect a class of sounds (e.g., fricatives)
3)Syllable structure processes - change the syllable structures in words

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Assimilation processes

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Reduplication
Consonant harmony/assimilation

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Substitution Processes

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Velar fronting (usually to alveolar)
Depalatization
Manner changes - Gliding or (r, j) glides /w, j/
topping (replace fricatives or affricates with a stop)
Deaffrication: Affricates produced as fricatives
Devoicing (usually final stop, fricative or affricate)

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Syllable structure processes

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Final consonant deletion (FCD)
Cluster simplification/Cluster reduction (CR)
Weak/Unstressed syllable deletion (WSD or USD)
Epenthesis extra sylable

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Consonant Harmony/Assimilation (CH)
Velar Fronting (VF)
Gliding (GL)
Stopping (ST)
Depalatization (Depal)
Deaffrication (Deaffric)
Final Consonant Deletion (FCD)
onsonant Cluster Reduction (CR)
Weak/Unstressed Syllable Deletion (WSD)
Epenthesis (Epen)
Reduplication (Redup)
Devoicing (DV)

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beb for bed
tar for car
wing for ring
tun for sun
is for fish
ship for chip
do for dog
pane for plan
nana for bana
balue for blue
wawa for water
dok for dog

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How do we know what babies perceive?

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High amplitude sucking
decreases when baby gets “bored”
increases when baby hears something “new”

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What do babies “notice” 1-4 months

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Preference for voices and prosodic information (‘motherese’ vs. adult-directed speech)
Discriminate Speech Sounds - Segmental Information:
Place contrast [d] vs [g] [f] vs [Ѳ]
Voicing contrast [pa] vs. [ba] [sa] vs. [za]

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Do babies “lose” perceptual distinctions?

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Yes, according to some studies
“use it or lose it”
- Loss of some non-native distinctions between
6 months and a year
- Continue to characterize only those sounds in their native language

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Infant Pre-Speech Sound Production at 0 – 1 month

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“Reflexive”
Quasi-resonant nuclei

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2 – 4 months

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“Cooing”
Some vowel-like sounds
One or two “closants”

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4 – 6 months

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Expansion (vocal play)
“Marginal” CV combos

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6+ months

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Canonical babbling
Reduplicated
Variegated
True “CV” syllables
Multisyllabic sequences

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9-15 months

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“Advanced forms”
Jargoning….
Multisyllabic, sentence-like sequences

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Infant pre-speech production & speech connections

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Are babbling and early speech/words related?
Yes or No
Share similar sounds (C,V)
Children with delayed babbling
Higher incidence of later speech sound disorder
Smaller expressive vocabs later
Late-talkers
Less canonical babbling
Hearing impaired children
Babble later, less frequently
Fewer syllable sequences
Some unusual sounds (e.g., glottal stops)

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Oller’s Typology of
Infant Phonations
Non-speechlike vocalizations
Speechlike Vocalizations

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Non-speechlike vocalizations
-Vegetative sounds
-Fixed Vocal Signal
Speechlike Vocalizations
-Quasi Vowels
-Primitive Articulation Stage
-Expansion Stage
-Canonical Babbling

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First 50 Words

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Highly variable; Impacted by multiple factors
Common syllable shapes – CV, VC, CVCV
Limited repertoire of vowels (more low, non-rounded vowels preferred)
Final Consonant Deletion common
Cluster Reduction common
Common sounds - m, n, p, b, t, d
- Think about place and manner - how do these compare with common sounds in babbling?

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2 Styles of Learning Speech

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1. Systematic and Stable
- word oriented, high intelligibility, segmental emphasis, consistent pronunciation
2. Exploratory and Variable
- intonation oriented, lower intelligibility, suprasegmental emphasis, variable pronunciation

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Consonant Inventory

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Sometimes we see selection and avoidance strategies/preferences
Child may attempt more words with “easy” sounds
Child may not attempt as many words with “hard” sounds
Consider size and complexity of syllables and sound types
Restrictions on sound inventory result in many homonyms (whole word patterns)
[ti] = “see”, “key”, “tea”
Homonyms can 1) increase lexicon; 2) limit for intelligibility

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Cross-sectional studies

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Examine children’s performance at a single point in time
Find out what’s typical and what’s less common

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Longitudinal studies

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Examine children’s performance over time

Find out how children’s speech changes over time

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Data Collection: What kinds of speech samples do we obtain?

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Single words
“Spontaneous” (elicited w/picture naming)
Imitative
Connected speech
Conversation, play
Sometimes elicited through story retell

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How do we analyze the data obtained?

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Independent
Describes CHILD’s repertoire...including
Syllable structures child produces
Sounds child produces (regardless of target)
Relational
Describes how child’s production relate to adult targets. These include...
“Accuracy” of producing target sounds (e.g. accuracy of /p/ in initial, final and medial word position)
Error description (e.g., f/θ substitution)
Pattern analyses (e.g., phonological process analysis)
Overall PCC (Percent Consonants Correct in conversation)

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24-30 months (2;0-2;6)
MASTERED SOUNDS
SYLLABLE STRUCTURES
COMMON PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES/PATTERNS

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p, (b) , (t), d , m , n , w , h
V, CV , VCV , CVCV , CVC ,(CVCVC)
All are possible
Redup and CH are decreasing

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36 months (3;0 years)
MASTERED SOUNDS
SYLLABLE STRUCTURES
COMMON PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES/PATTERNS

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p, b, t, d ,m, n , w , h (k,) (g) , (ŋ) , (j) , (f)
All vowels by 36 months, except rhotic
V,VCV,CV,CVCV ,CVC,(CVCVC), (CVCVCV)
(some consonant clusters)
WSD, FCD, CR, (Epenthesis) Gliding , Vocalization, Stopping, Depalatization ,Velar fronting

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CH = Consonant harmony
WSD: Weak/Unstressed syllable deletion
FCD: Final consonant deletion
CR: Cluster reduction

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CH
WSD
FCD
CR

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42 months (3;6 years)
MASTERED SOUNDS
SYLLABLE STRUCTURES
COMMON PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES/PATTERNS

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p, b, t, d ,m, n , w , h , k, g , (ŋ) , j , f All vowels except rhotic
V,VCV,CV,CVCV ,CVC,(CVCVC), (CVCVCV)
(some consonant clusters)
Minimal-WSD, FCD
Declining - CR
(Epenthesis) Gliding , Vocalization,
Stopping, (except /f/,/s/)
Depalatization ,Velar fronting (s,z common)

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4;0 to 4;11 (4-yr-olds)
MASTERED SOUNDS
SYLLABLE STRUCTURES
COMMON PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES/PATTERNS

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p,b ,t ,d, k ,g ,m,n, ŋ, w , l , j ,h , f (v) (s) ʃ (ʒ) ʧ,(ʤ)
All syllable structures
Gliding (w/r)
Stopping / ð /
Some frontalized s,z

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5;0 – 5;11
MASTERED SOUNDS
SYLLABLE STRUCTURES
COMMON PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES/PATTERNS

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p,b t,d , k, g, m , n , ŋ , w, l , (r) j , h ,f (v) , s(z) , ʃ , ʒ, ʧ, (ʤ)
All syllable structures
Sound-specific error patterns:
Some gliding, distortion of /r/ until about 6 years
Some f/θ and d,v/ð until 7-8 years
Some frontalized s,z until 7-8 years

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6;0 – 6;11
MASTERED SOUNDS
SYLLABLE STRUCTURES
COMMON PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES/PATTERNS

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p,b t,d k, g ,m ,n , ŋ, w, l, r, j , h, f,v θ s,z , ʃ, ʒ , ʧ,ʤ
All syllable structures
Sound-specific error patterns:
Some f/θ and d,v/ð until 7-8 years
Some frontalized s,z until 7-8 years

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7;0-7;11
MASTERED SOUNDS
SYLLABLE STRUCTURES
COMMON PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES/PATTERNS

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All sounds mastered except ð
All syllable structures
f /ð or d/ð

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8 years
MASTERED SOUNDS
SYLLABLE STRUCTURES
COMMON PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES/PATTERNS

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ll sounds mastered by 8 years
All syllable structures
None

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Typical Development: Intelligibility measure are?

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Estimates of intelligibility
for parents
for strangers
Transcription – word-by-word

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Intelligibility estimates at 2 years of age

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about 50% for strangers

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Intelligibility estimates at 3-year-olds

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About 75% for 3-year-olds (strangers)

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Intelligibility estimates by 4 to 5 years of age

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To [almost] fully intelligible by 4 to 5 years of age

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Overall accuracy of speech production
Percent consonants correct (PCC)

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Originally based on connected speech
Calculate #of correct consonants/#target consonants
If child produced 70 out of 100 consonants correct in a speech sample, PCC=?

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Overall accuracy: PCC and related measures

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Percent consonant clusters correct
Percent vowels correct

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Speech Sounds: Age of Acquisition

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Cross-sectional studies, usually
Single-word productions
Studies vary in
Word positions: I , M , F or I & F
Spontaneous vs. imitative productions
Criterion for “mastery” varies
75% of children produce the sounds correctly
90% of children produce the sound correctly
Many children will be using other sounds correctly, too
“Mastered” consonants are those that most children are using correctly
See chart

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Speech Sounds: Age of Acquisition

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Early, mid & late developing consonants
Use chart to answer following re: typical development
What 8 consonants are mastered earliest?
What 8 consonants are mastered latest?
What are the middle consonants and how do you identify them?
Note: Early, middle and late consonants in textbook are based on a study of children with speech delays
In spite of this, the list of early, middle and late consonants is very similar to those identified based on typical development in the chart compiled for this class

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Vowel Developemnt

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Non-rhotic
at 18 months
at 2 years
at 3 years and beyond
Rhotic
at 2 years
3 years to 4 years
Diphthongs –age of mastery?

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List of common phonological processes/patterns

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Reduplication (Redup)
Consonant harmony/assimilation (CH)
Velar Fronting (VF)
Depalatization (Depal)
Gliding
Stopping
Deaffrication (Deaffric)
Devoicing (Devoicing)
Final Consonant Deletion (FCD)
Consonant Cluster Reduction (CR)
Weak/unstressed syllable deletion (WSD)
Epenthesis (EPEN)

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Using the developmental info (with caution)

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Individual variation to be expected
But developmental mastery indicates what MOST children are doing
We use multiple sources of info in assessment; this is just part of the picture

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Perception in Infancy

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infant “recognizes” that sounds are different perceptually

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Phonological Perception in Infancy

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speech discrimination
child links meanings and sounds
Understands words said to him/her
key, tea, see, pee, bee…
rock, lock…
Phonological perception may not be completely adult-like in toddler/early preschool years
However, young children can perceive many things they can’t yet produce in adult-like ways

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Phonological Perception vs Phonological Awareness

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In typical development, young children can often perceive sounds that they do not produce yet.

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Phonological perception

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E.g.,
Where’s Mommy’s key?
Where’s Mommy’s tea?
Recognize different sounds/words and attach meaning
Show me the lock
Show me the rock
Perceive the difference between /r/ and /l/

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Phonological awareness

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Ability to analyze/manipulate/talk about speech sounds
E.g.,
“key” = /k/ + /i/
“tea” = /t/ + /i/

/l/ and /r/ added to the ‘ock’ ending make two different words with 2 different meanings and they rhyme

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Is gender associated with rate of phonological development?

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Studies of typical phonological development
Some show no difference between boys’ and girls’ phonological development
Some show girls somewhat ahead of boys
Not huge differences

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Is SES associated with rate of phonological development?

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SES = socioeconomic status
For production studies
Many studies show no difference in development of speech production
Studies that do show differences may not have taken the child’s home dialect into account
Problems with studies and the textbook summary
Speech Production and Phonological Awareness studies “lumped together” in textbook
Phonological Awareness has more to do with the manipulation of sounds and meanings of words (language/literacy link)

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SES and Phonological Studies, continued

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Textbook reports “syllable blending” study
This is a phonological awareness (PA) task
Children from lower SES backgrounds often have less experience with PA tasks
So studies of PA may reflect significant differences in experience (NOT disorder)
Contrast with gender differences & speech production
Presumably boys and girls had fairly similar experiences with speech production

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Are phonological development and language development related?

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Yes.
Connected without a doubt
Varying levels of expressive language across speech development stages
Studies show a decrease in phonological pattern errors as utterances increase
But.
This doesn’t mean that one “causes” the other.
Insufficient data in textbook to determine if speech and language just tend to develop at the same rate (so does shoe size and height)

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What about variability in typically developing children?

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Variability across children exists
That’s why we need to know
what MOST children are doing,
not just what the average child is doing

Within child variability
Young children don’t always produce the same sounds OR the same words the same way.
We expect increasing stabilization with development.
Extreme variability compared to normal within-child variability is typically associated with one type of phonological impairment.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szjfC9K190U example variability in child with this speech disorder.

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Consonant Harmony/Assimilation (CH)

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beb for bed

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Velar Fronting (VF)

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tar for car

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Gliding (GL)

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wing for ring

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Stopping (ST)

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tun for sun

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*Depalatization (Depal)

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fis for fish
palatal affricates and fricatives become more alveolar:
/ch/ and /sh/ becomes /s/ or /t+s/: “tsiken” for chicken
“brus” for brush
/J/ becomes /d+z/: “dzumping” for jumping

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Deaffrication (Deaffric)

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ship for chip
affricates become more fricatives:
/ch/ becomes /sh/: “shiken” for chicken
/J/ becomes /zh/: “zhumping” for jumping

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Final Consonant Deletion (FCD)

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do for dog

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Consonant Cluster Reduction (CR)

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pane for plane

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Weak/Unstressed Syllable Deletion (WSD)

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nana for banana

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Epenthesis (Epen)

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balue for blue

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Reduplication (Redup)

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wawa for water

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Devoicing (DV)

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dok for dog

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Behaviorist theory

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Children produce sounds (responses) that are rewarded
Is it a likely explanation for normal development?
- Children develop sounds faster than can be reinforced
Acquiring Speech and Language is too complex to be explained by reinforcement
Clinical applications
Traditional models of therapy –correct responses are rewarded

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Generative phonology

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Chomsky - Phonological rules map underlying, abstract representations onto surface pronunciations
Enables description of the relationship of children’s speech productions to adult pronunciations in terms of phonological rules. Can explain many phonological process errors through distinctive features.
ssumption: Children “have” underlying adult representations - this cannot be not proven

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Model/ theories of phonological development

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Behaviorist
Generative phonology
Natural phonology
Nonlinear phonology
Optimality
Sonority
Psycholinguistic models

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Natural phonology

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Marked sounds are simplified gradually less, assumes adult underlying rep.
Patterns that are preferred or frequently used in phonological systems - simplify the production of words

There are many “universal” processes that simplify pronunciation of underlying forms
(phonological “processes” are used instead of phonological “rules”)

Children’s speech becomes more adult-like as they suppress more processes with development

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Nonlinear phonology

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Collection of theories that focus on the hierarchical nature of the relationship between phonological units
Tier theory. 1)prosodic 2)segmental 3)geometry
Developmental
Children add information at each tier, progressive, not supressive or regressive
Clinical
Reminds us to consider more than individual sounds
Considers vowels, stress

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Optimality

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- Best alternative production selected based on constraints (level of proficiency)
Alternative productions are generated for an intended word

Best alternative production selected based on constraints (level of proficiency)

Ranking (weighting) of constraints
changes with development

Two types of constraints/selection criteria
Faithfulness output sounds like the input
Markedness  simplify difficult form

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Sonority

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- accounting for allowable sound sequences in a syllable that are easiest to say
Not a full theory – focus is on accounting for allowable sound sequences in a syllable that are easiest to say
- Value given for degree of ‘sonority’ (vowels and liquids highest) with consonant sequences as the least sonorous
Why do we have words like “brand”, rather than “arbdn” ?

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Psycholinguistic models

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Is there one lexicon OR two (input & output)

All attempt to address how people:
perceive , store, plan, and produce speech
input and output from the lexicon
access lexical representations to produce speech

What’s different from many phonological theories
Adult-like perception and underlying representation not assumed
We do know infants can distinguish speech sounds
pa vs. ba; da vs. ga
But do they organize representations of sounds in words like adults?
You might wonder:
How can representation be different from adults, if perception is there?
Map interactions between auditory input and underlying cognitive-linguistic processes and speech production/output


An example of differences among developmental psycholinguistic models:
Is there one lexicon OR two (input & output)