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251 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Intracellular fluid
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Fluid inside of the cell membrane
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Extracellular fluid
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Fluid outside of the cell membrane, within the extracellular matrix
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The last step in delivery of nutrients and the first step in removal of wastes involves the.....
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Extracellular fluid
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T/F Nutrient delivery and waste removal involve direct contact with the ECF
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FALSE
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Equation for fluid volume
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Volume = (amt injected/amt lost)/ concentration
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Total body of water is ______% of body weight
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60%
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ICF makes up ______ of TBW
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(2/3)
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ECF is composed of what 2 fluids?
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Plasma and interstitial fluid
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What can be used to measure the extracellular fluid ECF?
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Inulin
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What can be used to measure the plasma volume?
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Radiolabeled serum albumin
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Intracellular fluid has HIGH levels of what and LOW levels of what?
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HIGH (proteins, potassium, phosphates)
LOW (Na, Cl, Ca, HCO3) |
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Extracellular fluids have HIGH levels of what and LOW levels of what?
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HIGH (Na, Cl, Ca, HCO3)
LOW (potassium, phosphates, proteins) |
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solutions that have exactly the same total concentration of cations and anions have.....
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Macroscopic electroneutrality
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Amphiphilic
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Species containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic components
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Any material that crosses the lipid bilayer must.....
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Dissolve in lipid
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Name the membrane protein processes
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Signal transduction
Tranport Recognition Attachment Movement |
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Lipid rafts
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Accumulations of cholesterol in heterogenous patches of the membrane
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Integral proteins
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Proteins tightly bound to the cell membrane
- Amino acid/hydrophobic core interactions - covalent attachment to lipids like GPI - N terminus attachments to fatty acids |
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Peripheral proteins
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Loosely bound proteins
-Partial bilayer anchoring - Attachment to intrinsic proteins |
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Movements of the lipid within the bilayer
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Flexion
Rotation Lateral diffusion Stretching Flip-Flop (requires enzymes) |
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Enzymes that assist in the slow flip-flop of membrane lipids
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Flippase
Scramblase |
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Fatty acids that promote fluidity
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Unsaturated chains
Oleic Linoleic Palmitoleic |
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Stiff fatty acids
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Saturated fatty acids
Acyl chains |
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Transport that does NOT require energy
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Simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion |
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Transport that DOES require energy
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Active transport (primary/secondary)
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T/F Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion are both spontaneous
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TRUE
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The flux of volume is the same as
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velocity
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The typical value of diffusion for small solutes at room temp is
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0.5 x 10^-5 (cm^2*s^-1)
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The Nernst equation indicates...
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Equilibrium potential difference across a membrane separating charged particles at different concentrations
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The partition coefficient K defines
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The dissolution of a solute in the lipid membrane.
(C lipid/C water) |
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Define the permeability
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(-DK * C/x)
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What are two potential routes for a solute to travel through into the ICF?
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Pores
Lipid bilayer |
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Electrical force on charged particles produces.....
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a flux of solute
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What does the electrochemical potential indicate?
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The energetics of transport but NOT the mechanism or rate
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At equilibrium, free energy =
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zero
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T/F Permeability is always positive
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TRUE
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What is the relationship between flux and solute concentration in passive diffusion?
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Linear
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The Nernst Equation gives the balance between
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The concentration and electric potential
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Passive flux is increased by
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1 Concentration difference
2 Lipid solubility 3 Membrane thinnness/small solute size |
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Each motor neuron innervates..... and each muscle fiber is innervated by....
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Innervates a set of muscle fibers
Innervated by a single nerve |
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The depolarization of the action potential opens.......on the presynaptic membrane
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L-type voltage gated Ca channels
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Ca sensitive proteins; cause synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane
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synaptotagmin
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acetylcholine binds to what after release?
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two alpha subunits on the ACh receptor
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After ACh binds AChR, the conductance of ...... and ...... is increased
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Na and K
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What causes the endplate potential?
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Inward current carried by Na after its conductance is increased by the binding of ACh to AChR
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Passive depolarization spread
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Electrotonic
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Secreted by motor neurons and aids in signals that lead to the formation of the neuromusuclar junction
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Agrin
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Causes the hydrolysis of acetylcholine
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Acetylcholinesterase
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What 2 ways is the Ca signal terminated?
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- Influx from terminal is stopped bc channels close upon repolarization
- Na/Ca exchanger |
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Proteins that recycle vesicles
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Clathrin and dynamin
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Choline is recycled in the cell to reform acethylcholine via what enzyme?
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Choline acetyltransferase
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T/F The end plate potential is all of none
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FALSE
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Miniature end plate potential
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When a single vesicle attaches to the presynaptic membrane, causing a slight depolarization
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Quantal release of neurotransmitter
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Each vesicle contains approximately the same amount of ACh, therefore the EPP is a discrete multiple of the MEPP
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What is the mechanism of clostridium botulinum?
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It's L-chain crosses the nerve terminal membrane, is incorporated into endosomes, and cleaves proteins associated with vesicle docking
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3 proteins involved in vesicle fusion
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vSNARE: neurotransmitter vesicles
tSNARE: pre-synaptic membrane SNAP25: tSNARE type |
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What is the mechanism of curare?
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Competitively blocks AChR
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What is the mechanism of succinylcholine?
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Non competitively activates nicotinic AChR; cannot be degraded by acetylcholinesterase so it takes longer to destroy----> creates depolarization block
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What is a depolarization block?
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Seen in succinylcholine; continuous activation of AChR keeps muscle membrane depolarized.
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Name 2 acetylcholineserase inhibitors
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Neostigmine
Physostigmine |
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What is myasthenia gravis?
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Muscular disorder due to low AChR and smaller than normal endplate potentials
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Mechanism for sarin and VX gas
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Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors affecting the autonomic nervous system
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What is the effect of MuSK?
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MuSK is a tyrosine kinase that is a muscle specific protein. It signals for the formation of the neuromuscular junction.
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What is the mechanism for the Lamber-Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome (LEMS)
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Antibodies are directed against the voltage-gated channels in the pre-synaptic nerve terminal
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How is LEMS distinguishable from myasthenia gravis?
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Muscle strength increases with repetitive stimulation in LEMS
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What are 2 types of synapses?
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Chemical
Electrical |
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How do electrical synapses form?
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A connexin on one cell membrane lines up with a connexin on another cell membrane, forming a pore.
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What is a gap junction?
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The formation of a group of bidirectional pores when multiple connexins line up on 2 separate membranes.
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Synapse location when axon touches soma
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Axosomatic
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Synapse location when two dendrites touch one another
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Dendrodendritic
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Which is more numerous in the body----> chemical or electrical synapses?
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Chemical synapses
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Name 2 types of synaptic vesicles
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Small synaptic vesicles
Large synaptic vesicles |
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How are ACh levels decreased?
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-ACh destruction by Acholinesterase
- Diffusion away from synapse - Reuptake by glial cells |
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Receptors that directly link neurotransmitter binding to a change in the conductance of some ion
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Ionotropic receptors
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G-protein coupled receptors that alter conductance to some ion
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Metabotropic receptors
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How is an EPSP caused?
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A change in the conductance of Na or Ca
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How is an IPSP caused?
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A change in the conductance of Cl or K
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T/F IPSPs and EPSPs are all or none
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FALSE, they vary in magnitude
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in simple diffusion, permeability is proportional to _______ and ________ and inversely proportional to _________.
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Concentration gradient & lipid solubility
Molecular size of solute |
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Facilitated diffusion differs from simple diffusion by what 3 things?
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Competition
Saturation Specificity |
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What does the variable Km describe?
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It is the constant characteristic of the carrier
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T/F Thermodynamics tells us an expression for permeability and a rate at which a process occurs.
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FALSE
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The participation of a carrier does what to the the reaction?
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It changes the kinetics, but not the energetics. (Carrier=catalyst)
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Name 2 examples of facilitated diffusion
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GLUT-1
Glucose transporters |
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Molecules that allow ions to cross membrane
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Ionophores
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Name 3 examples of carrier ionophores.
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A23187 (divalent cations)
Nigericin (H+) Valinomycin (K+) |
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Name 3 examples of channel forming ionophores
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Gramicidin A
Amphotericin Nystatin |
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Percent of time channels are open
|
open probability
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What are two ways ion channels are regulated
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Ligand gated
Voltage gated |
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What is an IP3 receptor
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Channel former for Ca across ER membrane in response to inositol triphosphate (IP3)
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Passive water transport channels
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aquaporins
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Name 3 examples of primary active transports.
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Na-K-ATPase
Ca-ATPase H-ATPase |
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Name 2 examples of secondary active transport
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Na-glucose cotransport
Na-Ca exchange |
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Ouabain and digitalis
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Cardiac glycosides that inhibit the Na-K-ATPase pumps
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PMCA
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Plasma membrane calcium ATPase
Primary active transport pump mainting ionic gradients in most cell |
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SERCA
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Ca ATPase
Primary active transport pump that removes Ca from cytosol |
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What is the Na-Ca exchanger and what is its stoichiometry.
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It pumps 3Na:1Ca in a secondary active transport manner
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What is an antiport? Example?
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Transportation of 2 materials in opposite directions
ex.NCX (Na-Ca exchanger) |
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What's a symport?
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Cotransports materials in the same direction
Na-glucose transporter Na-amino acid transporter NA-i |
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The hydraulic conductivity is a variable related to the......
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Semi-permeable membrane
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The osmotic coefficient corrects for what 2 things?
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Non ideal behavior
Non dilute solutions |
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What were Pfeffer's conclusions from the osmosis experiments?
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- Solute in water causes flow
- Flow or pressure at equilibrium is directly proportional to the solute concentration - Solute causes a reduction in pressure of the solution - Osmotic pressure and flow result in solute interaction w/ membrane |
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What is the isotonic concentration of NaCl to blood?
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0.9%
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What is the isotonic concentration of glucose to blood?
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5%
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The molar concentration of osmotically active solutes
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Osmolarity
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T/F Tonicity is a property of a solution.
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False is it relative to something else.
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What colligative properties is osmotic pressure related to?
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Freezing point depression
Boiling point elevation Vapor pressure depression |
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A perfect osmometer would show a cell volume that is__________ to the osmolarity of the external medium.
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Inversely proportional
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I bands are ________ to polarized light
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Isotropic
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A bands are _______ to polarized light
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Anisotropic
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Filament that contains actin
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Thin filament
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Filament that contains myosin
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Thick filament
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Muscle cell organization longitudinally into tiny threads (structure)
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Myofibrils
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Length of the A band
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1.6 um
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Length of the thin filaments
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1 um
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The functional unit of the muscle
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Sarcomere
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Each thin filament is surrounded by ______ thick
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3
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Each thick filament is surrounded by ________ thin
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6
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Thin filament arrays are rotated _______degrees from thick filaments
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30
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Brings the action potential into the muscle cell
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T Tubules
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T/F The A band shortens during muscle contraction.
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FALSE, the Z disks move but the A band remains constant in length.
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What is the maximum length of sarcomere?
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3.65 um, no force
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What is the length of the sarcomere that produces the maximum force?
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1.95 um- 2.25 um
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At what length does the muscle force decrease due to thin filament interaction?
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1.95 um
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At what length does the Z disk run into the A band?
|
1.65 um
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T tubules and terminal cisternae form the what?
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Triad
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What is the location of the titin?
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Spans from Z disk to M line
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What does titin bind?
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alpha actinin, myosin, and M protein
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What is the interval length that myosin heads project out from the thick filaments.
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14.3 nm
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There is an identical repeat of 3 myosin molecules (6 heads) every _______nm.
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43
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The aggregation of filaments into actin strand
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G- actin and F-actin
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Spans the length of thin filaments and is anchored at the Z disk; contains a string of 200 actin binding domains
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Nebulin
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Two rod shaped, non identical polypeptide chains (alpha & beta) that wrap around each other to regulate the active state of muscle.
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Tropomyosin
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What troponin binds to tropomyosin?
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TnT
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What troponin binds to calcium?
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TnC
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What troponin inhibits the interaction between thick and thin filaments that cause force development or shortening?
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TnI
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What is the role of alpha actinin?
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Binds actin filaments of adjacent sarcomeres to the Z disk
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What does protease papain do?
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Cleaves myosin at the base of the heads into S1 fragments
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How many S1 fragments can an actin monomer bind?
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1
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What part of the myosin binds to the actin filaments
|
S1 fragments
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What is the role of actin in the helping myosin split ATP?
|
It activates myosin as an ATPase and speeds up the reaction 200-300X
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What is excitation-contraction coupling?
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The process by which the action potential on the surface of a muscle fiber signals muscle contraction
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The T tubule is connected to the terminal cisternae via the _______
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foot structures
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What senses the membrane potential on the T tubule membrane?
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DHPR
dihydropyridine receptor |
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T/F DHPR is necessary for excitation contraction coupling in skeletal muscle
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FALSE
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What is the function of RyR (ryanodine receptor)
|
It forms the channel that allows for rapid Ca release.
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Where is RyR1?
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Skeletal muscle
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Where is RyR2?
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Heart and brain
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Where is RyR3?
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Epithelial cells, smooth muscle, brain
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Calcsequestrin
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Binds Ca in sarcoplasmic reticulum
|
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How is the muscle relaxed?
|
Calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum in ratio of 1 ATP: 2 Ca
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Fast twitch muscle uses SERCA__
|
1a
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Slow twitch muscle uses SERCA__
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2a
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How many sites are possible on a fast twitch fiber for binding?
|
4 for Ca
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T/F Ca/Mg "high affinity" sites regulate TnC.
|
FALSE, they are always bound and do not regulate
|
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What is the series elastic element?
|
Spring that is in series with force producing muscle elements.
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|
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What does the force transmitted to the outside of the muscle depend on?
|
Spring length
Length-tension characteristics |
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|
Cytoskeletal assembly of proteins in a discrete, rib-like lattice.
|
Costameres
|
|
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Where are costameres located?
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Z-disk and M-line
|
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What is absent in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
|
Dystrophin, a protein that binds to cytoskeletal elements.
|
|
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The work to bring a positive unit charge from infinite separation to point A.
|
Electrical potential energy
|
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What is a siemen?
|
(amp/volt) which is the unit for conductance
|
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Increasing the cross-sectional area of a conductor ____________ the current
|
Increases
|
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What is a dielectric?
|
The insulating material in a capacitor
|
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What is the current that flows across the capacitor?
|
Capacitance current
|
|
|
What does the ability to store charge depend on?
|
Dielectric constant
Distance separating the plates Area of the plates |
|
|
What is the time constant?
|
The time it takes to charge the capacitor to be 37% of its final value.
|
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What are the external and internal concentrations of Na ions?
|
Out: 145mM
In: 12mM |
|
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What is the simplified Nernst equation?
|
Ex = 61.5 log (out/in)
|
|
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What is the K concentration outside and inside the cell?
|
Out: 4 mM
In: 155 mM |
|
|
What is the Cl concentration outside and inside the cell?
|
Out: 108 mM
In: 5 mM |
|
|
What is the Nernst equation solving for?
|
Potential
|
|
|
What is the Ena, Ek, and Ecl?
|
Ena: 66.7 mV
Ecl: -82 mV Ek: -97.7 mV |
|
|
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation assume?
|
That the electric field in the membrane is constant.
(It measures the resting potential) |
|
|
How is ion current calculated?
|
chord conductance * different between membrane potential and ion potential
[gx (Em-Ex)] |
|
|
T/F The total current across the membrane is zero at rest
|
TRUE
|
|
|
The resting membrane potential is the chord conductance weighted average of the equilibrium potentials for each ion.
|
Chord conductance equation
|
|
|
The Na-K-ATPase carried charge (in/out) of cell.
|
Carries charge out
3Na out : 2 K in |
|
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Chord conductance relates what 2 things?
|
Driving force of an ion and current of an ion
|
|
|
Excitable cells
|
Cells with the ability to initiate an action potential
|
|
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In the CNS, what myelinates cells?
|
Oligodendroglial cells
|
|
|
Cable properties
|
Electrical characteristics of an axon
|
|
|
The magnitude of hyperpolarization depends on....
|
the distance between stimulator and recording electrodes.
|
|
|
What influences the axon cable properties?
|
Membrane resistance
Membrane capacitance Electrical resistance |
|
|
Threshold potential
|
Threshold value at which you'll get an action potential 50% of the time
|
|
|
How long is an absolute refractory period?
|
1-2 ms
|
|
|
How long is a relative refractory period?
|
~ 4ms
|
|
|
Latency
|
Lag between the stimulus and initiation of AP
|
|
|
During the upstroke, the g(Na).......
|
Increases
|
|
|
What are 4 distinct components of the Na channel?
|
- selectivity filter allows na to pass preferentially
- Na has activation gate - Na has inactivation gate - Toxins bind Na gate |
|
|
TTX Tetrodotoxin
|
Binds Na channels and blocks them, preventing AP from occuring
|
|
|
Saxitoxin
|
Similar to TTX and Lidocaine; toxin that binds to Na Channel
|
|
|
When does the inactivation gate open?
|
During polarization
|
|
|
What happens to the Na channel gates during depolarization?
|
Activation gate opens, deactivation gate closes with time
|
|
|
T/F The K+ channel has an inactivation gate.
|
FALSE
|
|
|
What toxin blocks the K channel?
|
TEA
Tetraethylammonium |
|
|
Distance between recording electrodes divided by the time delay between APs
|
conduction velocity
|
|
|
How does the conduction velocity relate to the diameter in myelinated fibers? In unmyelinated?
|
Myelinated: proportional
Unmyelinated: square root of diameter |
|
|
What are 3 nerve fiber types?
|
A-alpha: somatic motor
A- sigma: Sharp pain and temp C: dull pain |
|
|
Electrotonically
|
Passive depolarization of the membrane
|
|
|
Capacitance increases with __________area and __________distance between plates.
|
Increased Area
Decreased d btwn plates |
|
|
What are the optimal conditions for a axon current to experience?
|
Low conductance and high resistance
|
|
|
Length constant
|
Distance during electrotonus for the voltage difference to decay within 37% of its final value
|
|
|
How large are nodes of Ranvier and how far apart are they?
|
2-3um long and 1-3 mm apart
|
|
|
How are muscles classified?
|
Neuronal control, structure, and anatomy
|
|
|
What are the anatomic classifications of muscle?
|
Skeletal
Cardiac Visceral |
|
|
What are the neuronal control classifications of muscles?
|
Voluntary
Involuntary |
|
|
Isometric contraction
|
Force change due to contraction, but not to muscle length changing
|
|
|
Increase in force with activation of increasing numbers of motor units
|
Recruitment
|
|
|
How can a muscle be stimulated before its relaxed?
|
The action potential is much shorter than the twitch time, so muscle force can be summated
|
|
|
What is the frequency at which human muscles tetanize?
|
20 - 100 Hz (cycles/sec)
|
|
|
Tetanic force is about _____ times the twitch force
|
5
|
|
|
Passive force
|
Relaxed muscles stretched passively without activation by a nerve stimulus
|
|
|
Active tension
|
Activation of the muscle by tetanic stimulation
|
|
|
Length-tension curve
|
Relation between active force and muscle length
|
|
|
Afterload
|
a weight that a muscle must overcome before shortening
|
|
|
Isotonic contraction
|
Shortening velocity is constant
|
|
|
As the afterload increases what happens to the isometric phase and isotonic force?
|
The isometric phase increases
The isotonic force is higher |
|
|
The relationship between force and velocity is.....
|
Inversely proportional
|
|
|
Maximum power for muscle fibers peaks when?
|
At 1/3 Max force
|
|
|
Power
|
Velocity*Force
|
|
|
Contraction of a muscle during a lengthening
|
Eccentric contraction
|
|
|
Contraction of a muscle causing shortening
|
Concentric contraction
|
|
|
When is more force observed? Concentric or eccentric contraction?
|
Eccentric (40% more)
|
|
|
Antagonistic muscles
|
Muscles that move joints in opposite directions
|
|
|
What do eccentric contractions do?
|
Decelerate body parts
|
|
|
How does the cross-sectional area relate to muscle force?
|
Higher area, larger force
|
|
|
What are the 3 orientations of muscle fibers?
|
Pinnate
Fusiform Parallel |
|
|
Fusiform muscles
|
Fibers are parallel to the longitudinal axis of the muscle, but with wider belly
|
|
|
Rate of ATP utilization by the aggregate muscles depends on....
|
the intensity of the exercise
|
|
|
Total ATP used by muscles is calculated by.....
|
Rate of utilization* duration of exercise
|
|
|
The part of the time that muscle is activated
|
Duty cycle
|
|
|
The duty cycle increases with......
|
Intensity
|
|
|
T/F There is no rest phase at maximum force
|
TRUE
|
|
|
3 systems for ATP regeneration
|
- creatine phosphokinase and myokinase
- Glycolysis - Oxidative phosphorylation |
|
|
Substrate channeling
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Direct transfer of ATP to enzymes that hydrolyze it (Ca-ATPase and myosin ATPase)
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T/F All muscle contractions require creatine phosphate regeneration of ATP
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TRUE
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Converts 2 ADP into ATP and AMP
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Myokinase
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Metabolic indicator of fuel status in muscle.
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AMP
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Glycolysis is depended upon by what fibers?
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Fast twitch glycolytic fibers
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What do muscles use for energy at rest, moderate exercise, and high intensity exercise?
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Free fatty acids< FFA +glucose< glycogen
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At low intensity exercise what does the oxidation of lactate or blood glucose do?
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Resynthesizes creatine phosphate and glycogen
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Cori Cycle
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Muscle glucose to lactate to liver lactate to blood glucose
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Transporter in muscle that takes up glucose
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Glut-4
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What recruits Glut4 to the cell membrane in muscles?
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Insulin
Exercise (in absence of insulin) |
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Why is lactic acid produced during rapid bursts of glycolysis?
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NAD+ levels fall, so the conversion of pyruvic acid to lactic acid converts NADH to NAD+
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What allows lactic acid to enter the mitochondria?
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MCT1
monocarboxylic acid transporter |
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What are the roles of CAMK and AMPK in muscle fibers?
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Calmodulin stimulated protein kinases (CAMK) & AMPK (AMP-stimulated protein kinases) increase Glut4 incorporation into the sarcolemma
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What 2 events cause hypertrophy?
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- Fibers make more myofibrils
- Satellite cells fuse with existing fibers to control extra cytoplasm |
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Name 3 muscle fiber types
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Type I: slow twitch
Type IIa: fast, oxidative Type IIb: fast, glycolytic |
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The main source of ATPase activity in exercising muscle is
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Acto-myosin ATPase
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