Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
68 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Why doesn’t Popper like/rely on the idea of induction (a.k.a. confirmation) in giving his account of science?
|
A theory can't be accepted until it has withstood falsification. A theory can be confirmed, and yet still proved false. "Confirmation is cheap." Some theories can be confirmed by using built-in defense mechanisms. Some are confirmed by chance because they make vague predictions. Just because a statement was in one instance true, doesn't make it always true or inherently true.
|
|
|
Why does Popper think that astrology and Freudian psychology are not scientific theories?
|
Freudian psychology says that if you refute it, you had an unconscious desire to refute it. Astrology makes vague, open-ended predictions that wind up getting confirmed by pure chance.
|
|
|
What does he mean when he says that “confirmation is cheap”?
|
Confirmation does not mean that a theory withstood falsification. Really, confirmation doesn't mean anything because it can happen by luck, manipulation, defense mechanisms, or a theory can be so broad that it is bound to be confirmed by anything.
|
|
|
What is his idea of “falsification” and how does this idea make the connection between observation and theory deductive, not inductive?
|
An inductive observation makes a theory likely to be true, a deductive observation makes a theory certain to be true. Observation guarantees the refute of a theory--> Example: If X is true, Y will happen. Y didn't happen. X is true. Marxist/Freudian/Astrology theory holds that observation makes a theory likely to be true.
|
|
|
What does Popper mean by “bold” or “risky” predictions?
|
Scientists should make definite, clear, precise predications that could be falsified by observation or experimentation.
|
|
|
According to Popper, what attitude should a scientist take towards his/her theory?
|
Scientists should TRY LIKE HELL to refute their theories, not support them (the point of experimentation). If you succeed in refuting, try a new theory. If you don't ever succeed in refuting, the theory is generally accepted.
|
|
|
What is the basic idea of the Duhem-Quine thesis?
|
Any theory that is apparently falsified by observation/experimentation can be saved by locating the problem somewhere else (like in the lab equipment, the conditions, the weather).
If theory T is true and all conditions (antecedents) are correct and working, then P should happen. P didn't happen. At least one of the antecedents was not true (maybe the theory, maybe not). |
|
|
How does this thesis cause trouble for Popper’s account of falsification?
|
It points out that a theory that is falsified may not be wrong, and shouldn't be discarded.
|
|
|
What are some of the problems/difficulties with Eddington’s observation of the stars during the eclipse?
|
The predicted differences in appearances were tiny. The camera lens would shrink or expand depending on the time of year. The eclipse was only visible in remote locations, so sub-par equipment was used. Long exposures were taken, and had to be adjusted to account for the earth moving.
|
|
|
How might the defender of Newton’s theory of physics use the Duhem-Quine thesis to save that theory from Eddington’s observation?
|
They could argue that any one of those antecedents were sub-par, and so the results of the observation weren't refuting the theory, they were simply reflecting poor conditions.
|
|
|
For the purposes of Paley’s argument, what’s the significant difference between the stone and the watch?
|
The watch is philosophically interesting. It has parts that work so precisely together and is literally perfect. Parts fit with one another to produce a very specific function. The rock does not.
|
|
|
What is the Argument from Design?
|
Paley argues that there are "wonders of nature" with parts that function together towards a clear purpose. The only explanation for these wonders is that they were designed by an intelligent designer. Biological complexity is the result of an intelligent designer. God is the designer.
|
|
|
What is Entropy and how is it connected to the Argument from Design?
|
The law of entropy suggests that things become less stable and more distorted over time. (E.g. a pencil will eventually decay and become dust.) So it would seem that biological complexity would also become more simple and less stable over time, not more.
|
|
|
What are some of the objections to the Argument from Design that we discussed?
|
Imperfect adaptation--> The human eye is really imperfect, there is a blind spot. Panda's thumbs are not ideal for anything except eating bamboo. Also, are we legitimate in assuming a single creator, or was it a group effort? Was it done right on the first time, or did it take multiple tries?
|
|
|
What are the two fundamental claims made by the Theory of Evolution?
|
1. All present day life originated from a common ancestor and is related.
2. All main source of biological variety is natural selection. |
|
|
How does Darwin illustrate the idea of Natural Selection using the idea of selective breeding on farms?
|
Darwin noted that animals on farms (such as pigeons, cats, cattle, and dogs) were methodically selected and bred because they had a trait that was deemed high quality. On farms, a predetermined standard is applied in the selection of what animals will breed with others. This allows the traits to become widespread very quickly. In nature, the selective breeding is done because of a bias towards a superior adaptation.
|
|
|
What is a theory of heredity?
|
The theory of heredity states that traits are passed from parent to offspring genetically. Each offspring gets two genes, one from each parent, for each trait. If they are heterozygous, one is dominant and one is recessive. The dominant one will hide the recessive one. If they are homozygous, they are both dominant or both recessive and the trait will be present.
|
|
|
Who was Mendel?
|
He is known as the "father of modern genetics." He tested pea plants and flowers with different colors and found that certain traits were dominant and others were recessive, and that depending on how the plants were bred, different predictable trait outcomes occurred. He found that there were purebred recessives, purebred dominants, and hybrids, in which the dominant trait was expressed. He was German scientist.
|
|
|
What are genes?
|
Genes are strands of DNA. DNA is made up of four substances that present themselves in particular orders. The order of the substances is an allele, which expresses a trait.
|
|
|
What is “imperfect adaptation” and how does it service as evidence for the Theory of Evolution?
|
Some examples of imperfect adaptation are the human eye's blind spot, and the panda's thumbs. Imperfect adaptation is the evolution of traits that serve a purpose and yet are not fully ideal. It points out that evolution does not lead to perfection, and the traits in some animals are flawed. It is evidence for the theory of evolution because an omniscient creator wouldn't have produced something flawed.
|
|
|
What examples of imperfect adaptation did we discuss?
|
The panda's thumb and the human eye blind spot. Honeybees die after stinging.
|
|
|
What does Darwin say about gaps in the fossil record?
|
We should keep digging. Just because we haven't found them doesn't mean they don't exist. Also, some transitionary forms involve changes in soft tissue, and those changes wouldn't have been fossilized because they're not bones.
|
|
|
What is “Saltationism”?
|
Saltationism is the "X-men" style mutation. In other words, a massive change occurs in a single generation.
|
|
|
What is “Gradualism”?
|
Gradualism is the idea that natural selection involves short, steady steps and small mutations which add up slowly over time.
|
|
|
What is “Punctuated Equilibrium”?
|
There are periods of status and periods of 50k-100k years where mutations are "punctuated" and are quick, with a lot of changes.
|
|
|
What’s the difference between “Boeing 747 saltation” and “DC-8/10 saltation”?
|
The 747 saltation represents macroevolution, where a massive change occurs and creates adaptive complexity out of noncomplexity. The DC 8/10 saltation represents evolution where a huge mutation occurs but involves an existing complexity. The change is big but the complexity isn't (e.g. size).
|
|
|
Which does Dawkins think is compatible with Evolution?
|
Dawkins thinks DC8/10 is compatible with evolution, but not 747 saltation.
|
|
|
What is “genetic drift”?
|
Genetic drift occurs when a characteristic takes hold/becomes widespread in subsequent generations by chance or pure luck.
|
|
|
What are “memes”?
|
Memes are ideas, thoughts, conceptualizations, cultural ideals, etc. transmitted from one person to another, changing each time.
|
|
|
Why does Dennett think that memes undergo a process akin to natural selection?
|
Memes transfer from person to person and mutate every time. The mutations that improve the idea are passed on, whereas bad ones die out.
|
|
|
Who was William Jennings Bryan and what role did he play in the Creationist movement?
|
William Jennings Bryan was the lawyer who represented the creationists, when they tried to sued a teacher for teaching that mankind evolved from early forms of life. He was a politician and WWI vet who thought that the awfulness of war was a result of teaching the evolution theory.
|
|
|
What was the “Scopes Monkey Trial”?
|
This was the trial brought against a high school biology teacher, Jon Scopes, who was violating a Tennessee law that prohibited the teaching of evolution.
|
|
|
Who won this trial?
|
William Jennings Bryan and the creationists won the trial, but the verdict was thrown out on a technicality.
|
|
|
What’s the difference between “Progressive” and “Strict” Creationists?
|
Progressive creationists think that a day in Genesis was actually many years and so the earth is actually as old as scientists say it is. Strict creationists think that a day in Genesis was a day, and the earth is about 10,000 years old.
|
|
|
Why did Creationists (William Jennings Bryan, in particular) originally object to the theory of Evolution on moral grounds?
|
They argued that evolution promotes immorality because children taught that they are the production of evolution, rather than creation, will exhibit moral depravity and lack of respect for the earth. They will also cause wars.
|
|
|
Does Gish think Creation Science is science?
|
No. He thinks that neither creationism nor evolution is satisfactory as a science, even though he prefers creationism.
|
|
|
Why does Gish think creation science isn't a science?
|
He says that it is 1) non-testable 2) non-observatble 3) cannot make predictions 4) non falsifiable 5) not witnessed
|
|
|
Does he think the theory of Evolution is science?
|
No. Neither. He says that evolution was 1) not witnessed either (no one saw macro-evolution take place--> He DOES grant microevolution) 2) Non falsifiable (it's true by definition--> "survival of the fittest" = "survival of those that survive" as noted by Popper) 3) There is a widespread debate between biologists about evolution
|
|
|
What are the details of Gish’s “Two Models Approach” to teaching high-school biology?
|
Gish wants to teach both evolution and creationism side by side, and let students decide which is best. "God" is not to be used, only "creator."
|
|
|
According to Gish, what are the central claims made by Creation Science and the theory of Evolution?
|
Evolution taught by saying that non-supernatural forces create all varieties of life, primary source of that variety being natural selection. Creationism = sudden appearance of great variety of complex life. Evolution = gradual changes of simple forms to more complex ones
|
|
|
What predictions does each make with regard to the fossil record?
|
Creation science = gaps in the fossil record, no transitional forms. Suddenly, vertebrates and flying creatures. No half-vertebrates or half-flying. Two choices, creationism or saltationism. Cambrian explosion.
Evo = The cambrian explosion tracks a sudden environmental change, a rapid increase in oxygen and calcium in sea-water, which allowed for bone growth. |
|
|
What is the Cambrian Explosion and how does Gish use it as evidence in favor of Creation Science?
|
The Cambrian Explosion--54 million years ago there was a sudden increase in the number and complexity of life. Gish claims that the only two options to explain it are saltationism or creationism.
|
|
|
How does Gish use the absence of certain transitional fossils as an argument for Creation Science?
|
If evolution is correct, there should be transitional forms between non-flying and flying creatures, and invertebrates and vertebrates.
|
|
|
What does Gish say about the presence of fossils of what appear to be transitional forms?
|
It's diversity within an original kind of organism (microevolution). No common ancestor, but evolution can occur within a single species.
|
|
|
Ruse draws a distinction between “the happening of evolution” and “how evolution happens”. What is this distinction and how does Ruse use it to undermine one of Gish’s arguments?
|
"The Happenings of Evolution:" One or few initial organisms develop through a naturalistic process through a succession of forms into present day life.
"How Evolution Happens:" Gradualism, genetic drift, speciation Undermines Gish's argument that scientists can't even agree if evolution is legit by pointing out that the happenings of evolution aren't debated by biologists, just how evolution happens is debated. |
|
|
According to Ruse, how does the Two Model Approach commit a fallacy (the fallacy of False Dilemma)?
|
The Dual Model Approach assumes that CS and Evo are the only two options and that objections against one serve as support for the other.
|
|
|
Is the theory of Evolution even in the business of explaining the origin of (simple) life?
|
No! It's not supposed to explain how life came around, it just explains how complex life came fro simple life.
|
|
|
How does today’s science differ from that of Aristotle?
|
Aristotle thought that objects had "teleos," which means that they tried to get back to "where they were from." Solids were from the earth, and that's why the fell.
Today's science depends on mathematics. Science is the study of matter in motion, and the essence of matter can be capture in laws that state blind, unchanging regularities. |
|
|
What criteria does Ruse list as being necessary for a theory to count as scientific?
|
1) Rely on natural law
2) Be explanatory in a specific way 3) Be testable 4) Be tentative |
|
|
What does Ruse mean by “natural law”?
|
It's not based on the supernatural.
|
|
|
According to Ruse, why does Creation Science lack explanatory power?
|
It can't explain the actions of the creator by natural law. It can't explain the creator's intentions.
|
|
|
What might a Creation Scientist, like Gish, say in response to this charge?
|
Creator is all powerful and all knowing so he created the best possible things for the best possible reasons.
|
|
|
Who was “McLean”?
|
He was a Minister who brought a case against Act 590 (Creationism is to be taught in schools).
|
|
|
Why did the plaintiffs claim that Act 590 violates the 1st Amendment?
|
It set up a religion in a government place (school).
|
|
|
What evidence does Overton point to in arguing that Creation Science is religion in disguise?
|
Damming correlation, (creator, worldwide flood) as well as letters sent to senators that refer to Christ and Satan when asking for support for Creation Science.
|
|
|
What was the judge’s final ruling?
|
Overton ruled that Creation Science wasn't a legitimate science and was religion in disguise because it's not 1) explanatory 2) falsifiable 3) tentative 4) guided by natural law
|
|
|
Give one reason for thinking that big-brained organisms (like us) are not an inevitable outcome of evolution.
|
Evolutionary change is opportunistic and environment can favor simpler or dumber organisms over more sophisticated ones.
|
|
|
What is Popper’s Mars thought-experiment?
|
We find reproducing life on Mars where reproduction sometimes results in genetic mutations from parents to children. We suspect natural selection, and there should be a wide variety of life. We find that there are only 3 species of life.
|
|
|
How does Popper use this thought-experiment to argue that evolution is not falsifiable?
|
Scientists would say no. They would just think of a new way to define how evolution works.
|
|
|
What are Ruse’s responses to this thought experiment?
|
Variety in life arises when there is an advantage to it. When there are a lot of ecological/geographical "niche." The experiment should be described in more detail. You can get testable predictions with more detail.
|
|
|
According to Ruse, in what circumstances should we expect natural selection to result in a large variety of life?
|
When there are a lot of geographical/ecological niches, and when there is an advantage to having a wide variety of life.
|
|
|
In what circumstances should we expect natural selection to not result in a large variety of life?
|
If the geography is very similar and there is no advantage to biological diversity.
|
|
|
What is “speciation”?
|
The rise of an entirely new biological species that evolved from a prior one.
|
|
|
Why does Popper think “the survival of the fittest” is a hollow definitional truth?
|
He defines "fittest" as "those that survive," which means "survival of the fittest" means "survival of those that survive."
|
|
|
How does Ruse use “genetic drift” to undermine Popper’s argument?
|
Most biologists believe in genetic drift, but this means that they define "the fittest" in terms of more than just "those that survive" and instead of something like "survival of the lucky."
|
|
|
What is wrong with Popper’s argument that Evolution predicts that all forms of life will be super-fertile (fast-producing) breeds?
|
Sometimes it is advantageous to not produce tons of offspring because they die, cannot be fed, etc. If care goes into upbringing, it is sometimes beneficial to not over-produce.
|
|
|
Describe a situation where evolution would not necessarily favor super-fertile (fast-producing) breeders.
|
Humans. Babies require a lot of care, and mothers would get worn thin if they had 8 babies to care for at once. Also, babies eat a lot and if you have to feed 8 children, they will all be hungry.
|
|
|
What evidence does Ruse cite in claiming that Creation Science is religion in disguise?
|
He refers to the fact that creation science uses the term "originally created kinds." Kinds is not a scientific term, and only appears in the Bible. Also, creation is contrasted with a "naturalistic process" and thus would be "nonnaturalistic" and supernatural and the work of a creator.
|
