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157 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Gorgias
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-not Plato's thoughts in writing, wanted to make Socrates beautiful and new
-3 conversations: Gorgias, Polus, Callicles |
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Socrates
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interested in knowing for sake of knowing
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Plato
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-transcient, other-worldly
-Socrates' most famous student -wrote about 40 dialogues including Gorgias |
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Polus
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-sophist - taught politics/public speaking
-2nd argument in Gorgias -claims that orators, like tyrants have great power (a good thing) because they do what they want and see fit -Socrates later argues doing what's unjust is more shameful...worse and the greatest evil is to sin and not pay for it |
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Callicles
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-statesman
-monologue: calls Socrates a crowd-pleaser -separates what's just by law from what's just by nature |
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oratory
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-speeches, no manual labor
-the ability to produce conviction with respect to the just and unjust in large and important gatherings |
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craft
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what produces fitness, reinforces justice, and generally serves to improve the individual (through really knowing what's good and bad)
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flattery
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doesn't really know what's healthy and what's not; pleases but is not good
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what one wants vs. what one sees fit to do
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what one wants - doing things for their own sake
what one sees fit to do - doing things for the sake of other things |
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what's just by law vs. what's just by nature
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-what's just by nature - what's really just
-what's just by law - what the leaders determine to be good/bad -Callicles made the distinction to try to prove how Socrates' arguments were not valid |
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images of the sieve/leaky jars
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is it good to have to keep "refilling jars" of happiness/goodness, or to fill them once and have them remain full?
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the pleasant vs. the good
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-we can experience both pleasure and pain at the same time
-we cannot experience both good and bad at the same time |
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Aristophanes
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-Greek comic poet
-wrote 40 plays involving real people/events |
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The Clouds
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-written by Aristophanes
-makes Socrates seem crazy -one of 3 sources for Socrates -Socrates may have attended it, and it may have contributed to Socrates' condemnation |
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reasons Christians began to philosophize
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1. defense
2. evangelization 3. the coherence and content of the faith (the puzzle of the Trinity, the Incarnation, etc.; how do we understand and interpret what Christ said?) |
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themes in Medieval philosophy
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-existence and properties of God (knowledge of God)
-relationship between God and the world -Preambula Fidei -Relationship between faith and reason (grace and nature) -the problem of universals |
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St. Augustine
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-greatest of fathers of medieval philosophy
-convert of Manicheanism and Platonism -relationship between faith and reason |
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St. Anselm
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-continues the Augustinian tradition
-a forerunner of scholasticism -devoted to understanding the doctrine of the Christian faith |
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faith seeking understanding
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-original title of Proslogian
-already believes |
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a priori vs. a posteriori
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a priori - knowledge independent of experience (things you just know)
a posteriori - dependent on experience |
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that than which nothing greater can be thought
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-definition of God
-historical roots |
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speaking words vs. having words in one's thoughts
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difference between saying something and understanding it (Anselm)
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God is whatever it is better to be than not to be
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-based on "that than which no greater can be thought"
-so God is just, truthful, happy, etc. |
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how God can perceive
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you perceive so you can know things and God already knows everything so he has no need to perceive
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how God can be merciful and impassible
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-God is merciful in relation to us (we feel the effect, the sorrowful are saved and sinners spared, etc.)
-God is not merciful in relation to himself (he does not feel compassion or sorrow) |
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God's mercy vs. His justice
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Mercy: with respect to God (not merciful
with respect to us (merciful) Justice: with respect to God (just) with respect to us (not just) |
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God's simplicity
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-Anselm says it is a property of God
-can't be composed of parts because then several things would be equally as great |
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God's eternity
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Beyond all other eternal things because:
1. They can't exist without God 2. They can be thought to have an end, but God can't 3. God is the only one that always possesses his full eternity |
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British empiricism
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-Hobbes, Lock, Berkeley, Hume, etc.
-influenced more by experimental aspects of scientific revolution -rationalist thinking doesn't give us info about the world |
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continental rationalism
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-Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, etc.
-influenced more by mathematical aspects of scientific revolution -innate ideas -> deductions about world -emphasized the power of reason, immaterial substances, and confronted the mind/body problem |
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Kant
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Phenomena: Experience, Concepts of the person (rationalism), Sense perceptions (empiricism)
Neumena: Things in themselves, God, Freedom, Immortality (no way to prove or disprove these exist) |
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purpose of the Meditations
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-uses math/geometry to solve all problems of the universe
-tries to establish a method to start over in philosophy to build off something absolutely certain -demonstration of God's existence and the nature of the soul |
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significance of the term "Meditations"
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only read it if you can really think about what he's writing
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Cartesian doubt
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-doubt whatever might possibly be false
-no reason necessarily for thinking things are false -context: Descartes wants to start completely back from the beginning |
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argument from illusion
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our senses seem to work fine much of the time, but we know they don't always
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argument from dreams
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arithmetic, geometry, etc. still seem certain and indubitable, even if physics, medicine, astronomy, etc. are not
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evil demon argument
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-It is possible that nothing exists and we are really being deceived by an evil demon
-now nothing seems to be left of his knowledge -but in order to be deceived, we must exist as thinking things |
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"I am, I exist"
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-even to be deceived I must exist and have mental states (beliefs, etc.)
-we may not know if our thoughts and experiences are accurate, but we can know we are having such thoughts and experiences -Descartes' Archimedean point for rebuilding the pyramid |
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a thinking thing
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only thing he knows for sure
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dualism
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-Plato
-mind is separate from material -one of main positions for thinking about nature of human beings |
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clear and distinctness
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-must be true: that he exists, thinks, perceives various things
-NOT clear and distinct: that there exist certain things outside of himself - not necessarily sure if they exist |
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the example of the wax
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-only thing we know is that wax is "somewhat extended, flexible, mutable"
-imagination can't fully recognize this -therefore, it is only through the mind that he knows how wax truly is |
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ideas properly speaking
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-most common judgement mistake we make is to judge that ideas are properly speaking that are in me are similar to or in conformity with certain things outside of me
-equal images of things (chimera, horse, God) |
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ideas that include something more
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equal volitions, affects, judgments
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objective reality
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the content of the idea, what is being described
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formal reality
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the actual reality of the idea as an idea
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the cause must be as great as the effect
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-"There must be at least as much reality in the cause of something as there is in the effect of that cause"
-even with respect to "objective reality"; there must be as much formal reality in the cause as there is objective reality in the idea |
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God as supreme good
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Trinity is "one necessary things" which is the complete, total, and only good
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the nature of matter
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-it is only through the mind, that I know what matter really and truly is
-analogy with automata |
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the Cartesian circle
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Descartes uses clear and distinct ideas to prove God exists; claims God exists and isn't a deceiver because Descartes has clear and distinct ideas
-criticism of Descartes - circular logic |
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How does Anselm argue that our happiness lies in God alone?
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1. He is the source and cause of all delights
2. He is that than which no greater can be thought |
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How does Socrates use the ideas behind his classifications to argue that everyone should pursue philosophy?
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Oratory merely maintains people (at best) and has no record of even succeeding at avoiding the suffering of injustice. We should care more about living well/successfully and improving ourselves. This is what crafts do, flattery is the first example.
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How does Descartes build back up the pyramid of our knowledge?
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I think therefore I am - he exists and is a thinking thing, doesn't know if has body, things he perceives clearly exist, God exists because the idea contains more objective reality than Descartes could come up with on his own.
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Descartes' second argument that God must exist
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like Anselm's argument
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Descartes' dualist conclusion
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mind is separate from a body, he is only a mind, attached to some body - if he is just a mind, he cannot be corrupted or broken down - his essence consists entirely of him being a thinking thing
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the problem of deception in nature
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ex: you feel thirsty when it would make you ill to drink - but God is not a deceiver
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Francis Bacon
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-British philosopher, scientist, and statesman
-more influenced by the experimental aspects of the new science -wrote New Atlantis -"knowledge is power" |
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New Atlantis
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-utopian novel
-written by Francis Bacon -Imagined possibilities for society based on "new learning" -one of the most important inspirational works of the scientific revolution -reflects what Descartes said in Meditations on First Philosophy |
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The legacy of Kant
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-Copernican revolution - response to empiricists and rationalists
-the mind doesn't passively receive impressions or knowledge from the world, rather it actively constructs what it knows -combines empiricism, rationalism, and faith -if everything we know about things is shaped by our own faculties, we really know nothing about things themselves |
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The two streams of 19th century philosophy
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1. Those accepting Kant's critique of our ability to achieve real knowledge of things in themselves but who rejected Kant's "things-in-themselves"
-idealism, practical philosophy, early existentialists, pragmatism 2. Those accepting Kant's claim that there are "things-in-themselves", but who rejected the thought that we cannot somehow achieve knowledge of them -return to metaphysics |
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Hegel
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-idealism
-"things-in-themselves" are the leftovers of an outdated metaphysics -expanded the role of the mind; all reality is "thought" -thought unfolds over time (thesis, antithesis, synthesis) |
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Kierkegaard
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-early existentialist
-response to Kant that was critical of reason itself, entailing a loss of faith in the benefits of science and the enlightenment -turns from reason and science to faith -starting point: "What am I to do?" rather than "What am I to know?" -philosophical pessimist before his time |
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Nietzsche
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-turned from reason to creativity and artistic expression
-proclaimed the death of God, the end of morality, and the "superman" -philosophical pessimist before his time |
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Pope Leo XIII
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-Neo-Thomism
-wrote encyclical Aeterni Patris -called for a renewal of classical philosophy, especially that of Thomas Aquinas (a wrong turn was made somewhere?) |
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Themes in 20th century philosophy
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1. Loss of confidence
2. Concern with science 3. Worry over consciousness 4. Preoccupation with language 5. Most important: a desire to escape from the constructivism and relativism that was the 19th century's inheritance from Kant |
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Analytic philosophy
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-tradition of British Empiricism
1. Has roots in assumptions about nature that can be traced back to Hume and Hobbes 2. Universe is composed of a large number of very simple entities 3. Complex objects can be analyzed into the simple entities of which they are composed 4. These simple entities are directly understandable whenever they are encountered |
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Phenomenology
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-tradition of Rationalism
1. Reality consists in "things-as-they-appear", but consciousness does not construct the world (as Kant thought), but instead reveals the world 2. Emphasizes the structure of our conscious experience and what that experience reveals about reality |
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Bertrand Russell
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-analytic tradition
-realist like Moore and logician like Frege, he brought analysis and the new logic together -distinguished between "hard" data and "soft" data -metaphysical tendencies but ended as an antimetaphysician |
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Logical Positivists
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-heirs of Russell
-verifiability principle: the meaning of a proposition is its method of verification (this is meant very empirically, and entails that metaphysics and theology are meaningless); problem of the status of the principle itself |
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Edmund Husserl
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-founder of phenomenology
-accepted that reality consists in "things-as-they-appear" but rejected the "constructivist" view of Kant and the idealists -requires us to suspend judgment about the existence of things and focus on experience itself |
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J.S. Mill
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-practical philosophy
-one of the founders of "utilitariansim", which developed out of empiricism -interested most of all in ethical and political questions |
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Purpose of On Liberty
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social liberty, or the nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over individuals
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Tyranny of the majority
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not merely referring to government, but to any majority that imposes its will on anyone in the society
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Custom
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-up until now, it is the likings and dislikings of society or some powerful portion of it that have determined where to set the boundary on controlling others and restricting their liberty
-Especially the irrational forces, custom in the most arbitrary sense |
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The harm principle
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Interference is warranted only to prevent harm to others, other than this an individual is completely sovereign over himself
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The immature and the barbaric
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can further restrict their liberty
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Liberty of thought and discussion
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1. If the opinion suppressed is actually the correct one, we lose the opportunity to know the truth
2. If the opinion suppressed is false, we lose the opportunity to more deeply understand the true opinion 3. The truth may be some combination of the different opinions |
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We are always fallible
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-Counter-argument: of course we are fallible, but our judgment is fallible in all that we do, and nevertheless we have to act for the best given the honest and conscientious judgment we make (comparison with taxes and wars)
-Response: While of course we must make the best judgment possible, the very means of crafting a good judgment is exposing our opinions to opposite opinions and arguments |
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The value of freedom of thought
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-what allows us to claim that our judgment is the right one is the freedom allowed to those who can express opinions and arguments against this judgment
-so we undermine our own ability to make good judgments when we repress dissenting opinions and arguments -history shows that we are prone to error, and the only liberty for this is discussion supported by experience |
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Socrates, Christ, and Marcus Aurelius
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look what happens when you don't allow freedom of expression
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The importance of disagreement
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1. If the opinion suppressed is actually the correct one, we lose the opportunity to know the truth
2. If the opinion suppressed is false, we lose the opportunity to more deeply understand the true opinion 3. The truth may be some combination of the different opinions |
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Argument/counter argument structure of the text
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Mill first presents one of his points and then goes through and disproves each of the possible counter arguments. This makes his arguments particularly convincing because it appears he has considered every point of view.
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Four grounds for freedom of opinion
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1. the silenced opinion might after all be true (for we are not infallible)
2. though the silenced opinion might be in error, it likely contains some portion of the truth 3. even if the received opinion is the whole truth, unless subjected to serious contention it will be held as a mere prejudice and command no great influence over the believer 4. and in such a case even the meaning of the claim will be lost or enfeebled |
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The good of individuality
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1. the experience of others might be too narrow, or they might now have interpreted their experience correctly
2. if the experience is correct, it might still be unsuitable 3. even if customs are good and suitable, merely conforming to custom does not educate or develop the person -even for those who do not seek their own individuality, the individuality of others will still benefit them |
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Progress
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If we lose those individuals who through liberty bring about progress, we will lose our civilization and power, and become a backwater (ex: China)
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Strong character
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-Perhaps people will admit that our understanding is our own, but not necessarily our desires and impulses
-But they are as much a part of a perfect human being as understanding is, and they help produce "strong character", the possibility of heroism and great energy |
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We may still avoid people, look down on them, etc.
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though we may not punish individuals for faults concerning only themselves, we may still avoid them, look down on them, advise others to avoid them, etc.
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Our private actions always affect the rest of society
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1. If I injure my property, I harm those who indirectly derive support
from it 2. If I neglect my body or mind, I bring evil on those who depend on me and am no longer able to render service to others and perhaps even become a burden on them 3. My vices and follies, if they do no direct injury, set a bad example 4. And why should society abandon those who are hurting themselves? 5. And, in all this, we need not limit free development, but merely restrict what history has shown destroys and limits development |
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Violating obligations
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If someone violates of his obligations, then authorities may step in, though here what is condemned is not the particular vice but the neglect of the obligation
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Islamic countries and pork
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example of the improper use of force by society over individuals: laws or force exercised over the private actions of individuals (imaginary case)
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The Maine Laws
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example of the improper use of force by society over individuals: laws or force exercised over the private actions of individuals (actual case)
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Sabbatarian legislation
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example of the improper use of force by society over individuals: laws or force exercised over the private actions of individuals (actual case)
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Mormons
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example of the improper use of force by society over individuals: laws or force exercised over the private actions of individuals (actual case)
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Competition
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-Just because damage to the interests of others is the only legitimate reason for interfering with individuals, it does not mean that damage to the interests of others always justifies interference
-In many cases interference is only warranted if fraud or treachery, or force, is present -Okay to hurt others' interests by beating them in competition because it furthers society as a whole |
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Trade
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-Just because damage to the interests of others is the only legitimate reason for interfering with individuals, it does not mean that damage to the interests of others always justifies interference
-In many cases interference is only warranted if fraud or treachery, or force, is present -Okay to hurt others' interests by beating them in trade because it furthers society as a whole |
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Sale of poisons
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-Mill mentions as an important exception: because there is only a CHANCE of causing harm, the seller only needs to warn the buyer about the possible dangers, but cannot restrict their purchase
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Evil counsel
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-Just because damage to the interests of others is the only legitimate reason for interfering with individuals, it does not mean that damage to the interests of others always justifies interference
-In many cases interference is only warranted if fraud or treachery, or force, is present -does evil counsel, or the resultant actions, cause the actual harm? |
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Selling oneself into slavery
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-not okay to use one's freedom to give away one's freedom
-technically, it's okay to SELL oneself into slavery, but not to BE or HOLD a slave |
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Education of children
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Parents may exercise this form of control over those in their power (their children)
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Having of children
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Parents may exercise this form of control over those in their power (their children)
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Logic
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-one of 3 divisions of philosophy
-the rules of reasoning: "human reason" 1. the form of reasoning 2. the "matter" or stuff of reasoning |
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Aldous Huxley
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-English humanist and pacifist
-interested in spiritual subjects such as parapsychology and philosophical mysticism -leader of modern thought, intellectual |
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Brave New World
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-negative utopia - denial of liberty - correlates with Mill's principles
-written by Aldous Huxley -written in 1932 |
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Speculative philosophy
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-one of the divisions of philosophy
-knowledge for its own sake: "how things exist" 1. philosophy of mathematics 2. philosophy of nature 3. metaphysics |
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Practical philosophy
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-one of the divisions of philosophy
-Value Theory: knowledge for the sake of acting: "human acts" 1. philosophy of art (or of "making") 2. the philosophy of acting (or of "doing") |
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Philosophy of nature
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"physics"
a. the material world: philosophy of science (biology, physics, chemistry, etc.) b. human beings: philosophy of mind (what is the nature and the consciousness of human nature?), as well as epistemology (what is knowledge? How can we know anything at all? What sorts of things can we know?) |
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Metaphysics
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"after physics" - purpose is the discovery of first principles
a. metaphysics generally considered (or "ontology"): philosophy of being, involving questions of existence, time, etc. b. philosophy of religion - does God exist? What is His nature? What is His relationship to us? |
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Epistemology
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What is knowledge? How can we know anything at all? What sorts of things can we know?
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Philosophy of religion
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Does God exist? What is His nature? What is His relationship to us?
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Philosophy of mind
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What is the nature and properties of human consciousness?
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Aesthetics
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the fine arts hold a special place in the philosophy of art, and from there we have the term "aesthetics"
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Ethics
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-practical philosophy, philosophy of acting
-Moral philosophy -What is happiness? How should I act? Should I be virtuous? |
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Political philosophy
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-practical philosophy, philosophy of acting
-How should society be ordered? When and how should it exercise power? |
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Applied ethics
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-practical philosophy, philosophy of acting
-medical ethics, environmental ethics, etc. |
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Continental philosophy
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-dominates Western Europe
1. often still maintains a critical stance toward metaphysics, and sometimes toward our ability to acquire knowledge in general 2. characterized by an emphasis on literary form 3. Derrida, Foucault, Habermas, Rorty, Taylor |
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Pope John Paul II
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-philosophy/theology professor specializing in ethics
-wrote the encyclical, Fides et Ratio |
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Encyclical
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-a letter written by the pope addressed to all bishops of the Roman Catholic church
-ex: Fides et Ratio |
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"faith and reason are like two wings"
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faith and reason are distinct but not mutually exclusive; rather, they are complementary; used by Pope John Paul II in beginning of Fides et Ratio to determine the relationship between faith and reason
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"Know yourself."
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from intro to Fides et Ratio: fundamental requirement of being human; its possibility sets us apart from the rest of the natural world, and it implies a search for truth and the meaning of things
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Faith
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theology
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Rason
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philosophy
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Ethics
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-practical philosophy, philosophy of acting
-Moral philosophy -What is happiness? How should I act? Should I be virtuous? |
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Political philosophy
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-practical philosophy, philosophy of acting
-How should society be ordered? When and how should it exercise power? |
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Applied ethics
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-practical philosophy, philosophy of acting
-medical ethics, environmental ethics, etc. |
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Continental philosophy
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-dominates Western Europe
1. often still maintains a critical stance toward metaphysics, and sometimes toward our ability to acquire knowledge in general 2. characterized by an emphasis on literary form 3. Derrida, Foucault, Habermas, Rorty, Taylor |
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Pope John Paul II
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-philosophy/theology professor specializing in ethics
-wrote the encyclical, Fides et Ratio |
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Encyclical
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-a letter written by the pope addressed to all bishops of the Roman Catholic church
-ex: Fides et Ratio |
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"faith and reason are like two wings"
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faith and reason are distinct but not mutually exclusive; rather, they are complementary; used by Pope John Paul II in beginning of Fides et Ratio to determine the relationship between faith and reason
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"Know yourself."
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from intro to Fides et Ratio: fundamental requirement of being human; its possibility sets us apart from the rest of the natural world, and it implies a search for truth and the meaning of things
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Faith
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theology
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Reason
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philosophy
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Theology
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faith
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Philosophy
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reason; church sees value in it both for finding the fundamental truths of human life and for developing a deeper understanding of faith and communicating it to others
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Wonder
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-Pope John Paul II uses it to clarify what he means by philosophy in Fides et Ratio
-philosophy springs from wonder |
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Implicit philosophy
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-Philosophical systems develop, but these systems are always partial and imperfect, and they must be balanced by the constant good of philosophical inquiry
-implicit philosophy is a sort of philosophy that seems true always and everywhere |
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Wisdom
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-Pope John Paul II loves wisdom
-He is constantly connecting the wisdom of faith to the wisdom of philosophy |
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Wisdom literature
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-Pope John Paul II quotes from the wisdom literature of the Old Testament: what sets this literature apart is the unity between the knowledge of faith and the knowledge of reason
-In the New Testament, St. Paul in his Letter to the Romans helps us appreciate the wisdom literature, but we suffer now from the effects of sin which hamper our power of reason |
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Christ's incarnation and death
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-Because human reasoning is limited and weakened, the Christian's relationship to philosophy requires thoroughgoing discernment
-This is because Christ's incarnation and death defy purely natural explanation, and they reveal that a purely rational explanation of the meaning of life will be insufficient |
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"Does life have a meaning?"
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-Humans are always searching for truth and answers to questions like this.
-The fact of our own death makes this question unescapable -Ultimately, the definition of a human being is "one who seeks the truth" |
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Death
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-Makes the question of the meaning of life unescapable
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Living by truth and living by belief
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-we who live by truth also, necessarily, live by belief
-Important tension: knowledge acquired through belief seems less perfect than knowledge acquired through personal examination of the evidence; nevertheless, knowledge acquired through belief also seems richer, because it involves a human relationship and the activity of trust (ex: martyrs) |
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Christianity's initial confrontation with philosophy
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-Christianity has always engaged philosophy
-Some problems: rejection of subordination of truths of revelation to interpretations of philosophers -Initial confrontation was mixed: -At first it seemed a distraction or disturbance rather than an opportunity, though it was not because they were “illiterate and uncouth” -On the contrary, Christianity rejected the elitism with respect to the pursuit of the truth that characterized ancient philosophy (both of ability and of opportunity) |
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Aquinas and the distinction between faith and reason
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-Both the light of reason and the light of faith come from God, he thought, and so there can be no contradiction between them; while faith completes reason, it also builds on reason (the example of meaning, truth, and justification)
-Reasons for the church reiterating the values of Aquinas: -distrust of reason -misplaced emphasis on the human sciences -interest in "traditional ways" |
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Rationalism
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-historical approach to relationship between faith and reason
-Separation between faith and reason led to an exaggerated rationalism on one hand, and on the other hand, a large distrust of reason -often contrasted with fideism (e.g. Biblicism) in theology |
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Fideism
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-historical approach to relationship between faith and reason
-traditionalism, contrasted with rationalism -ex: Biblicism |
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Nihilism
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-one of more recent approaches to relationship between faith and reason
-the claim that the search, what defines us as human beings, has no real point or purpose, can never be completed, and there is no real meaning to life |
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Thomistic revival
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the church does not only point out mistakes, but also encourages genuine renewal and stresses basic principles
-20th century renewal of Thomistic philosophy and Medieval philosophy more generally -just the beginning of a resurgence of philosophical thought within the Christian tradition |
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Image of a circle
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relationship between philosophy and theology is a circle; they both lead to and rely on one another
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Philosophy completely independent of God's revelation
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-one of 3 main stances of philosophy
-shows philosophy's valid aspiration to be an autonomous discipline -different from completely "separate" philosophy - may not be possible for us today |
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Christian philosophy
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-one of 3 main stances of philosophy
-subjective and objective aspects -neither specifically Christian nor taking care not to avoid contradicting the faith -ex: Exodus |
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Sapiential dimension
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-dimension of philosophy dealing with wisdom, more important than mere knowledge
-we face today a "crisis of meaning" (fragmentation, specialization, skepticism) -what matters is the search for the ultimate and overarching meaning of life |
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Postmodernity
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Many current dangerous modes of thought (i.e. eclecticism, historicism, scientism, pragmatism, nihilism) are caused in part because of a crisis of rationality which has helped bring about "postmodernity"
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Walker Percy
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-"Southern Catholic writer" often grouped with Flannery O'Connor
-while recovering from tuberculosis, he had read deeply in philosophy, particularly in the "existentialist" tradition -wrote The Moviegoer |
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The Moviegoer
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-Walker Percy's most famous and widely read novel
-published in 1961 -Existentialist - correlates with Pope John Paul II's claim that everyone is a philosopher |
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how Descartes knows something is certain
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cannot possibly be doubted
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Everyman
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-morality play
-reflects what Anselm said in Proslogian -(anonymous author) |
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What are some of the characteristics, according to John Paul II, that philosophy today needs to exhibit?
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-The Christian mystery pushes philosophy to its limits, yet only with Christianity can we find the fulfillment of philosophy; what can this reveal about today’s tasks for philosophy and theology?
1. First, philosophy must recover its “sapiential dimension” 1. We face today a “crisis of meaning” (fragmentation, specialization, skepticism) 2. What matters is the search for the ultimate and overarching meaning of life 2. Second, philosophy must affirm the human capacity to know the truth by means of that adaequatio rei et intellectus (therefore extreme phenomenalism or relativism is excluded) 3. Third, philosophy must have a genuinely metaphysical range. |
