Philosophy 101 Terms And Concepts

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Mythology

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An attempt to make sense of the world through stories

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Religion

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An attempt to make sense of the world through revelation

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Philosophy

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An attempt to make sense of the world using reason. Greek from "philia", meaning love, and "sophia", meaning wisdom

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Metaphysics

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The study of ultimate reality; "What is there? What does/doesn't exist?"

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Epistemology

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The study of knowledge; "What can I know?"

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Skeptics

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Those who deny the possibility of truly knowing some answers

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Ethics

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Concerned with clarifying how people should act

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Aesthetics

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The study of art and beauty

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Logic

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The basis of all philisophical arguments. Clarifies the distinction between good and bad arguments.

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Contradiction

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A sentence that both denies and asserts something is the case

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Logically Consistent

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If and only if it is possible all claims in a set are true at the same time. Premises that do not contradict one another.

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Logically Inconsistent

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If and only if it is impossible that all claims in a set are true at the same time. Contradictory premises.

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Causal Possibility

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When a state of affairs does not contradict the laws of nature and physics

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Logical Possibility

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When a set of premises do not contradict one another and are possible either in this world, or in another without this world's laws

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Epistemic Possibility

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When something is possible for all we know

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Necessary and Sufficient conditions/definition

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The complete set of qualities and definitions used to describe the essence of something

"A mother is a female parent." 'Female' and 'parent' are necessary, both together are sufficient.

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Validity

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When all statements, premises and conclusion, are not contradictory. Truth preserving.

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Sound

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A valid argument of true statements

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Conclusion

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The claim of an argument

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Premises

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The reasons offered in support of the conclusion of an argument

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Standard Form

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Lists all the premises in numbered, sequential order, then adds the conclusion at the end.

1. Premise

2. Premise

3. Conclusion

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Deductive Argument

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Offers conclusive support of the conclusion. If the premises are true, the conclusion MUST be true.

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Modus Ponens

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"Affirming the antecedent (premises, come before)", "Mode of proposing"

1. If P, then Q

2. P

3. Therefore: Q

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Modus Tonens

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"Denying the consquent (follows the proposition)", "Mode of denying/taking from the truth"

1. If P, then Q

2. Not Q

3. Therefore: Not P

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Disjunctive Syllogism

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1. P or Q

2. Not P

3. Therefore: Q

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Hypothetical Syllogism

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1. If P, then Q

2. If Q, then R

3. If P, then R

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(Constructive) Dilema

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1. P or Q

2. P then R

3. Q then S

4. Therefore: R or S

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Inductive Argument

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Provides 'enough' support for the conclusion. Is likely true.

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Enumerative Inductive Argument

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1. All observed P are F.

2. Therefore: All P are F

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Argument by Analogy

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1. F is like P.

2. P has property A.

3. Therefore: F has property A

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Inference to the best explanation

Abductive argument

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1. P

2. The best explanation for P is A

3. Therefore: A

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Ockham's Razor

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Explanation A is better than explanation B if (all other things being equal) explanation A is simpler than explanation B.

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Principle of Conservatism

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Explanation A is better than explanation B if (all other things being equal) explanation A fits together better with the rest of my beliefs about the world.

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Strong Inductive Argument

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If it is very likely that the conclusion is true if the premises are true

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Cogent Inductive Argument

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Strong and all premises are true

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Ambiguous

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Can be understood in two distinct ways

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Vague

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It may be uncertain whether it applies in a given case.

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Fallacy

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A faulty argument.

An argument psychologically persuasive, but logically flawed.

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Mutually Exclusive

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If one thing, it cannot be another

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Knowledge

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Justifiable, true belief

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Proposition/Claim

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Can be true or false

Must be argued/supported/proven/disproven

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Incompatibilism

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Free will cano nly exist is determinism is false. Determinism or free will, no inbetween.

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Libertarianism

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Future is not determined by the past, but by the will of free agents with free will. Subset of incompatibilism.

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Indeterminism

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Not all events are causally determined by events in the past; the past has only limited influence on the future. Subset of incompatibilism.

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Hard Determinism

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The future is causally determined by the past. There is no free will. Subset of incompatibilism.

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Compatibilism

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Free will and determinism are not mutually exclusive.

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Traditional Compataibilism

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We are free as long as we can do what we want to without outside influences stopping us.

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Deep Self-Compatibilism

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We are free so long as we do what we, in our innermost self, desire to do, free of constraints either physical or emotional/mental.

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Principle of Sufficient Reason

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Anything that happens does so for a definite reason.

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Consequence Argument

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Determinism is not compatible with the idea of moral responsibility.

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Qualitative Identity

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Two things are identitcal if they look the same/have the same properties.

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Numerical Identity

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When two things are the same if and only if they are one and the same.

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Illusion Theory

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No persistent self; self is an illusion. Self constantly changes and becomes new.

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Body Theory/Animalism

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The self is the same so long as it remains physically the same.

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Soul Thoery

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The self is the same so long as the soul remains the same.

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Memory Theory

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The self is the same so long as later self shares memories with former self.

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Physicalism

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The theory that mental states are more substantial than mental states; the mind does not exist, just the brain.

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Dualism

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Mental and physical states are equally real, are ontologically independent of one another.

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Idealism

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Mental states are more fundamental than physical states; the mind exists, but the physical world doesn't.

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Ontological Dependence

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One thing cannot exist before/without the former. Mark Twain could not exist without Samuel Clemens, since Clemens 'invented' Twain.

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Conceivability Argument

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Argument in favor of dualism, claiming that the fact one can imagine being without a body but not without a mind/self, the two are different substances.

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Leibniz's Law

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A and B are identical to each other only if they have all properties in common.

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Parallelism

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Minds and bodies exist in parallel worlds and thus never interact.

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Occasionalism

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Theory that God intervenes, 'syncing' the behaviors of the body with reactions of the mind and vice versa.

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Behaviorism

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Type of physicalism; Mental states are dispositions to behave.

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Identity Theory

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Type of physicalism; Mental states are brain states. Mind and brain are the same thing.

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Functionalism

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Type of physicalism; mental states are functional states that causally relate to inner states with behavioral effects. Anything with the right 'equipment' can play the role of the mind/brain.

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Classical Theism

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Embraced by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. One God who is the Creator of the universe, who is all-knowing, -powerful, and -present.

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Pantheism

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God is everywhere; nature and God are one.

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Theism

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There are good reasons for thinking that there exists a supreme being.

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Atheism

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There are good reasons for thinking that there exists no supreme being.

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Agnosticism

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There is not enough proof one way or another.

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Ethical Relativism

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There are no objective moral values.

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Ethical Subjectivism

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Morality depends upon the individual.

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Cultural Relativism

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Morality depends upon the culture.

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Ethical Objectivism

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There are overall moral laws that apply to all, regardless of culture or individual preference.

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Divine Command Theory

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Morality depends upon the say-so of God. God does not choose morality, but God's choices are moral, and thus following His commands is moral.

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Utilitarianism

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An action is moral if it maximizes the overall well-being and happiness of the greatest number of people.

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Deontology

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An action is moral if the motive is such that every rational agent could have acted on the motive as well. Intent matters.

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Virtue Ethics

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An action is moral if an agents who as all the virtues would have performed the action. Doing the right thing, for the right reason, in the right way.

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Hedonists

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Those who beleive that happiness is a result of how much pleasure and pain one experiences.