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183 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Dispositional traits |
general, internal, and comparative dispositions attributed to people initially - methods for quantifying self-report questionnaires |
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The Big Five Traits |
Openness to Experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism |
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Characteristic Adaptations |
contextualized facets of psychological individuality that speak to motivational, cognitive, and developmental concerns in personality |
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3 Major Theoretical Categories of Characteristic Adaptations |
human motivation, cognition and personality, developmental |
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Human Motivation |
what do people want and desire in life? |
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Cognition and PErsonality |
values, beliefs, expectancies, schemas, plans, personal constructs, cognitive styles |
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Developmental |
evolution of the self and its relationships with others from birth to old age |
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Life Stories |
internalized and evolving narrative of the self that integrates the reconstructed past, perceived present, and anticipated future in order to provide a life with a sense of unity and purpose |
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Unsystematic Observation |
subjective, context of discovey (induction), case studies |
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Building Theories |
4 tools of building theories: - abstract model - terms for key ideas - correspondence rules for describing specific relationships - hypotheses |
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Evaluating Propositions |
-attempt to justify the truth of the statement given by the theory - testable hypotheses |
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Beginning of Personality Psychology |
1930s - Gordon Allport's "Personality: a psychological interpretation" |
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Three Periods in History of Modern Psychology |
- 1930-50: establishing the field and the development of a number of general systems - 1950-70: personality measurements and elaborating constructs - 1970-today: critique and doubt concerning legitimacy |
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Evolutionary Heritage |
study of a person begins with human nature - what traits were going to assist with natural selection? - survival promotion and genetic success |
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Genes |
- segments of a chromosome - want to reproduce and replicate |
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inclusive fitness |
overall ability to replicate, reproductive success and that of close relatives is most important to us |
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Natural Selection |
the key to evolution - nature gradually selects characteristics that promote reproductive success |
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Mating Theory |
prime reason: produce offspring - mate discrimination between men and women with different goals and gene reproduction - unconscious evolutionary desire |
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Socioanlytic Theory (Hogan) |
human beings are biologically predisposed to live in social groups that are hierarchical |
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Primary Social Goals (Hogan) |
- getting along and getting ahead - role playing and impression management - unconscious, central, genetic tendencies |
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Character Structure |
shown when displaying ourselves to parents |
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Role Structure |
displaying ourselves to friends, peers, and society - comes along as we grow and age |
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Aggression |
war is universal, gender differences in aggression, intrasexual competition |
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Altruism |
kin selection: predisposition to benefit relatives reciprocal altruism (low risk, high benefit) Human mortality |
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The Origins of Human Morality and Altruism |
sympathy related tendencies, norm-related tendencies, reciprocity, getting along |
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Sympathy Related Tendencies |
emotional bonding between humans, adjustment to and special treatment of the disabled, cognitive empathy (see others point of views) |
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Norm Related Tendencies |
tendency to develop prescriptive social views, tendency to internalize rules and anticipate rewards and punishments |
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Reciprocity |
giving, trading, revenge moralistic aggression against violators of rules |
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Getting Along |
peacemaking/conflict avoidance accommodation of conflicting interest-negotiate communicate concern/desire for good relationships |
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Attachment |
babies bond to their caregivers in the first year of life - functions to solve adaptational problems - early caregiver-infant interaction have long-term effects on personality |
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Mary Ainsworth |
assessment and understanding of individual differences in attachment |
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John Bowlby |
human love and natural selection and how attachment is adaptive over human evolution - relationship is instinctive in order to help the infant |
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Stages in Attachment Bond |
- newborn vague orientation to social stimuli - phase of heightened sociability (2-7 months) where they smile and show attachments ends as affectional partnership between infant and caregiver |
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Attachment refers to... |
seeking and maintaining proximity to another individual ex: Rhesus Monkeys show preference for attachment objects |
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Ocxytocin |
helps attachment, protects infants from harm, reduces cortisol levels, lowers blood pressure, increases tolerance to pain, reduces anxiety |
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Stranger and Seperation Anxiety |
normal in development - presence of attachment reduces fear - 8 months and older show distress when separate from caregivers - abandonment (long periods) --> mourning, protest, despair, sadness, detachment |
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Strange Situation PRocedure |
- assesses attachment differences with 1 year olds - Mary Ainsworth - babies classified as A, B, C, or D |
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A Babies |
Avoidant (insecure) - avoid returning caregiver |
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B Babies |
secure ( majority of participants) |
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C babies |
resistant (insecure) - angry reaction to return of caregiver |
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D Babies |
disorganized (insecure - chronic/sever abuse - baby is confused and/or disoriented with the return of the caregiver |
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Factors to Attachment Research |
social class--> stress of poverty impedes secure attachment bonds abuse/neglect--> insecure attachment |
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Disorganized Attachment |
higher levels of aggression in grade school |
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Secure Attachment Effects |
greater levels of mastery and competence in preschool and elementary school; higher quality of exploration higher levels of pretend play; greater competence in problem-solving tasks; more rapid and smooth adjustments to strangers; more harmonious relationships with peers; more regulated, sociable, and socially competent |
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Behaviorism |
explores the ways in which observable behavior is learned and shaped by the environment - B.F. Skinner, John B. Watson, John Locke |
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Utilitarianism |
the "good" society should make for the greatest happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people |
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Classical Conditioning |
unconditioned Stimulus + neutral -> unconditioned response conditioned stimulus (ex-N) -> conditioned response |
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Examples of Classical Conditioning |
Pavlov's dogs Watson's Little Albert study |
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Stimulus Generalization |
expansion of a condition so that it is evoked to variety of stimuli that resemble conditioned stimuli - generalizations can lead to phobias |
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Higher-Order Conditioning |
conditional stimulus come to be associated with other neutral stimuli |
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Operant Conditioning |
Behavior is modified by its consequences - positive/negative reinforcers - positive/negative punishments - extinction - shaping - continuous/partial reinforcement - interval: based on time - ratio: based on # of responses |
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Julian Rotter |
first psychologist to introduce cognition into behaviorism - social learning theory - we actively construct our environment, act on what we anticipate from others - expectancy, locus of control, reinforcement value |
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Expectancy |
a subjectively held probability that a particular reinforcement will occur as the outcome of a specific behavior |
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locus of control |
how we expect the world to react to us |
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Internal Locus of Control |
expect reinforcements and rewards to follow their own actions |
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External Locus of Control |
expects that his or her behavior will not lead to predictable reinforcement |
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Reinforcement Value |
subjective attractiveness of a particular reinforcement |
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Behavior Potential |
expectancy + reinforcement value |
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Walter Mischel |
Cognitive /Social Learning/Person Variables - characteristic strategies or styles of approaching situations |
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Competencies |
what a person knows and can do |
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encoding strategies |
the manner in which people interpret information |
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self- regulatory systems and plans |
the ways we regulate and guide our own behavior through self-imposed goals and standards |
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Albert Bandura |
social learning theory- observational learning - certain learning occurs outside of pleasure and pain- we do not need to be rewarded in order to learn, just by watching other people behave and reading about what others do- observing the world - ex: Bobo Doll Expirement |
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Steps of Observational Learning |
- Attentional Process (features of model) - Retention Process (encode, remember, make sense) - Motor Reproduction Processes (capabilities) - Motivational Processes (must want to imitate) |
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Self Efficacy |
a person's belief that he or she can successfully carry out a course of action required to deal with prospective situations containing ambiguous, unpredictable, and stressful elements - these judgments determine if a person undertakes a goal oriented task or not |
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Four Sources of Self Efficacy |
- performance accomplishments - vicarious experiments - verbal persuasion - emotional arousal |
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Social Ecology |
many different experimental contexts that influence a person's behavior and shape his or her life (micro and macro contexts) |
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Authoritative Parenting |
demanding and supportive - relationship is reciprocal, responsive; high in bidirectional communication |
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Authoritarian Parenting |
demanding, unsupporting - relationship is controlling, power assertive; high in unidirectional communication |
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Permissive Parenting |
undemanding, supportive - relationship is indulgent; low in control attempts |
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Rejecting-Neglecting Parenting |
relationship is rejecting or neglecting; uninvolved |
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Moos 6 categories of human environment |
- dimension of physical ecology - behavior setting or episode - organizational structure - characteristic of person/situation -organizational climate - functional/reinforcement properties |
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psychological affordances |
opportunities for behavior and experience the situations can afford or offer for the participant |
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situational prototypes |
an abstract set of features about a given class of situations - what to expect and how to behave in a situation |
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Macrocontexts |
social structure, gender, culture, history |
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social structure |
conditions of society that differentiate people along the lines of power and resources |
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Gender |
gender role stereotypes, agency (tendency to assert themselves) and communion (tendency to merge with others) |
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Culture |
- individualism v. capitalism - modernity - etic vs. emic (etic: common among cultures, emic: different among cultures) |
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History |
Generational differences |
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Traits |
stable over time, bipolar terms, additive and independent, broad individual differences in socioemotional functioning |
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4 positions on the nature of Traits |
- neurophysiological substrates - behavioral dispositions - act frequencies - linguistic categories |
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Neurophysiological Substrates |
- position on the nature of traits -exist in the nervous system |
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Behavioral Dispositions |
- position on the nature of traits - exist as dispositions that exert a significant impact on behavior |
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Act Frequencies |
- position on the nature of traits - descriptive summaries for behavioral acts |
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Linguistic Categories |
- position on the nature of traits - convenient fictions that people invent in their efforts to understand social life |
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Ancient Greek Four Humors (Galen) |
- blood: sanguine, bold, confident, robust temperament - Black Bile: melancholic, depressed, anxious, pessimistic, brooding - Yellow Bile: choleric, restless, irritable, liable to explode in anger Phlegm: phlegmatic- aloof, apathetic, cold, sluggish |
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Hans Eysenck |
extraversion and neuroticism |
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Ernsy Kretschmer and William Sheldon |
constitutional psychology - endomorph, ectomorph, mesomorph |
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Endomorph |
body is round and soft: easy going, affable, very desiring of social approval, relaxation and comfort |
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Ectomorph |
body is thin and bony; restraint, privacy, introversion, self consciousness |
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mesomorph |
relatively muscular; aggressive, dominant, adventurous, courageous, callous |
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Gordon Allport |
modern trait theory - common trait - personal disposition |
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Common Trat |
dimensions of human functioning upon which many different people are likely to differ |
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Personal Disposition |
a trait that is especially characteristic of a given individual and is therefore instrumental for depicting that individual person's uniqueness |
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cardinal disposition |
very general and pervasive trait for a given person |
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central dispositions |
wide range of dispositions that my be characteristic for a given person and called into play on a relatively regular basis |
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secondary dispositions |
limited and less critical |
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Raymond B. Cattell |
- brought statistics into personality - L-data, Q-data, T-data |
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L-data |
this is life record data such as school grades, absence from work, etc. |
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Q-data |
this was a questionnaire designed to rate an individual's personality |
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T-data |
this is data from objective tests designed to 'tap' into a personality construct |
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Factor Analysis |
statistical approach to derive a complex classification scheme for traits - reduce a large number of items to a smaller set of underlying dimensions or "factors" |
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surface traits |
related elements of behavior that tend to cluster together; readily observable in behavior |
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source traits |
16 basic factors underlying the many different surface traits that might be identified |
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Hans Eysenck |
found that behavior could be represented by two dimensions: - introversion/extraversion - neuroticism/ stability these were called second order personality traits |
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extraverts |
sociable and rave excitement and change, can become bored easily. Tend to be carefree, optimistic and impulsive |
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introverts |
reserved, plan their actions and control their emotions- tend to be srious ,reliable and pessimistic |
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neurotic/unstable |
tend to be anxious, worrying and moody. They are overly emotional and find it difficult to calm down once upset |
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stable |
are emotionally calm, unreactive and unworried |
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Psychotism |
added by Eysenck later - lacking in empathy, cruel, a loner, aggressive and troublesome |
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Francis Galton's Lexical Hypothesis |
personality descriptions can be found most readily by examining a language's lexicon, or the words contained in a dictionary |
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Item Analysis |
investigator determines the relative contribution of each item to the total score on the test |
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Validity |
construct/content/convergent/criterion/discriminant/face |
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Reliability |
test-retest reliability/split-half reliability |
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Interactionism |
- actual behavior is a function of a continuous process - the individual is an active agent in the interactional process - cognitive and motivational factors are essential determinants of behavior - psychological meaning of situations for the individual is the important determining factor |
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Trait Inventories |
can help confirm diagnosis, eprsonality research form |
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Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory |
clinical diagnostic instrument - criterion-key method |
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California Psychological Inventory |
folk-concepts: categories of personality that arise naturally out of human interactions - can help confirm diagnosis |
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Multi-dimensional Personality Questionnaire |
well-being, social potency, achievement, stress reaction, social closeness, alienation ,aggression, control (v. ipulsivity), harm avoidance, traditionalism, absorpton |
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Mischel's Critique |
-behavior is more situationally specific than cross-situationally consistent - fundamental attribution error: people blame traits more than the situation - trait scores fail to predict what a person will do in particular situations - launched person-situation debate - aggregating Behavioral scores, across many situations over time |
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Personality Disorder |
mental health conditions, maladaptive behavior, outside of cultural expectations, long-term pattern of behaviors, extreme manifestation of characteristics |
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Clusters of Personality Disorders |
A (odd), B (dramatic), C (anxious) |
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Cluster A |
odd - schizoid - schizotypal - paranoid |
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Cluster B |
dramatic - histrionic - narcissistic - antisocial - borderline |
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Cluster C |
anxious - dependent - avoidant - obsessive-compulsive |
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Schizoid Personality Disorder |
extreme isolation, inability to enjoy social relations, detached - rarest personality disorder (< 1%) |
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Schizotypal |
social awkwardness, bizarre thoughts and behaviors ex: odd speech habits, bizarre clothing, belief in UFOs (est. 3% of pop) |
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Paranoid |
suspiciousness, hostility, lack of trust in relationships ex: belief in conspiracies |
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Histrionic |
flamboyant, but superficial style, self centeredness ex: flamboyant dress, seductive behavior, men: macho, hyper-masculine style |
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Narcissistic |
Grandiosity, lack of empathy, need for admiration; belief that s/he is the most brilliant, beautiful person |
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antisocal |
cruel and aggressive behavior, sociopathy "psychopaths"; likely to engage in criminal activity; substance use rises in early adolescence and then subside after age 30; about 3% in American men and 1% in American women |
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Bordeline |
mood instability; feeling intensely bored and empty; profound fear of abandonment |
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Dependent |
submissive and passive style, need to be taken care of; excessive clinging behavior; unable to take personal autonomy |
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Avoidant |
social withdrawal out of fear of criticism or inadequacy; takes few risks and fears expressing own opinions; expects criticism and contempt from other people |
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obsessive compulsive |
rigid adherence to rules and details, desire for perfection; inflexible concern for rules, the rules become the goal |
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Extraversion |
- superstar personality trait - direct energy outward toward the social world - outgoing, sociable, enthusiastic, impulsive, heedless, socially dominant |
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Intraversion |
- direct psychological energy inward toward private thought and fantasy - quiet, withdrawn, contemplative, deliberate, less likely to take risks |
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Neuroticism |
emotional stability v. instability - anxiety, depression, excessive emotionality, nervousness, moodiness, hostility - distressed and upset, worried, nervous, and insecure |
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Neurotic Cascade |
- hyper-reactivity - differential exposure - differential appraisal - mood spillover - sting of familiar problems |
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Eysenck and the Theory of Arousal |
the root of extraversion lies in underlying biological processes - each individual prefers an optimal level of arousal- maximal pleasure and optimal responding |
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Reticular Activating System (RAS) |
network of nerve fibers ascending from the spinal cord to the thalamus (primitive) that is responsible for general arousal and regulating wakefulness and attention (no thinking required) |
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Reinforcement Sensitivity theory |
based on rewards and punishment |
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Dopamine |
neurotransmitter associated with reward and pleasure |
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BAS (Behavioral Approach System) |
hypothesized system in the brain that is responsible for motivating behavior aimed at achieving goals and obtaining positive emotional rewards |
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Amygdala |
part of brain associated with fear |
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BIS (Behavioral Inhibition System) |
mediates negative affect and motivates a person to inhibit goal-based behavior in order to avoid punishment |
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Fight-Flight-Freeze |
evolutionarily adaptive - brain control center for behavioral responses to imminent threat, motivated by fear |
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Left Frontal Lobe |
BAS and positive emotions |
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Right Frontal Lobe |
BIS and negative emotions |
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Openness to Experience |
- how reflective, imaginative, artistic, and refined a person is High: original, imaginative, creative, complex, curious, daring, independent, analytical, untraditional, artistic, liberal, broad interests Low: conventional, down to earth, uncreative, simple, incurious, non adventurous, conforming, non analytic, unartistic, traditional, conservative, narrow interests |
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Authoritarian Personality |
extremely low scores on openness - highly repressed family environment - emotionally distant and punitive parents - conservative politically - distrust of outsiders and societal "deviants" |
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Conscientiousness |
how hard working, self-disciplined, responsible, reliable, dutiful, well-organized, and persevering a person is - high: well organized, efficient, dependable - low: disorganized, haphazard, inefficient, careless, negligent, and undependable |
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Agreeableness |
-high: interpersonally warm, cooperative, accommodating, helpful, patient, cordial, empathic, kind, understanding, courteous, natural and sincere - low: antagonistic, belligerent, harsh, unsympathetic, manipulative, disingenuous, scornful, crude, and cruel |
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Psychoticism |
very low A and C with other "very bad things" - high: highly impulsive, aloof, nonconforming, aggressive, inhumane, laking in responsibility, and disregard for the law, danger, and for feelings of others - low: cooperative, empathic, tender-minded, and conventional |
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Absolute Continuity of Traits |
constancy in the quantity or amount of an attribute over time |
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Differential Continuity of Traits |
an individual's relative standing to one another on a given dimension - relative to peers |
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Temperament |
differences in basic behavioral style, often observed in early life and presumed to be under biological control |
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Thomas, Chess and Birch |
classified babies into: easy babies, difficult babies, slow to warm up babies |
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Easy Babies |
consistently positive mood, low-to-moderate intensity of emotional reactions and regular sleeping and eating cycles |
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difficult babies |
consistently negative moods, intense emotional reactions, and irregular sleeping and eating cycles |
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slow-to-warm-up babies |
combo of the two: relatively negative moods, low intensity of emotional reactions, and the tendency to withdraw from new events at first but then approach them later |
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Rothbart's 6 Temperament Dimensions |
activity level smiling and laughter fearfulness distress to limitations "soothability" vocal activity |
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Jerome Kagan |
behavioral inhibition |
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behavioral inhibition |
- inhibited young children are very timid with new places and people - extremely shy versus extremely sociable |
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effortful control |
some children find it difficult to control impulses while others are able to keep themselves in check - girls > boys - affluent > deprived - older children > younger |
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Well Adjusted Chidlren |
appropriate levels of self control, adequate self-confidence, did not become upset with new situations |
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Under-Controlled Children |
impulsive, restless, negativistic, distractible |
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Confident Children |
adjusted quickly, friendliness, impulsivity, enthusiasm |
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Inhibited Children |
socially reticent, fearful, easily upset |
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Reserved Children |
timid, uncomfortable, but less shyness and caution than inhibited |
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Developmental Elaboration |
a complex interplay through which inborn tendencies shape and are shaped by environmental inputs over a long period of time |
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Inborn Temperament differences include |
- learning processes - environmental elicitation - environmental construal - social and temporal comparisons - environmental selections - environmental manipulations |
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monozygotic twins |
genetically identical twins |
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dizygotic twins |
fraternal twins |
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Heritability Quotient |
estimates the proportions of variability in a given characteristic that can be attributed to genetic differences between people |
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Behavior Genetics |
scientific discipline that explores the empirical evidence concerning the relative influences of genetic and environmental factors in accounting for variability in human behavior |
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Evocative Influence |
people respond to a child according to his or her genotype |
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Passive Influence |
biological parents provide an environment for the child that is compatible with their own genotypes |
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Active Influence |
direct selection of and search for environments that fit one's genotype |
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serotonin |
neurotransmitter released into the synapse between neurons to transmit information along nerve pathways |
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reuptake |
once serotonin is released into the synaptic cleft, other molecules act to draw the serotonin back into the neuron from which it originally came |
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5-HTTP |
gene that is involved in producing the protein molecules that are responsible for removing serotonin from the synaptic cleft between neurons ` |
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"The Four Faces of Eve" |
typology of women's personality at mid-life - individuated - traditional - conflicted - assured |
