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174 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Genotype-environment interaction
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when genotypes respond differently to environment
-genotypes (ss, ll, sl) and life stressors on depressive symptoms |
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Genotype-environment correlation
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people construct own environment
-specific gene for specific characteristic fosters / discourages expression of characteristic Passive, Active, Reactive -negative gene-environment correlation more likely, shifts over life span |
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Phenotype equation
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P = Genotype + environment + gene environment correlation + gene environment interaction
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Heritability (h2)
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amount of observed variability in traits that can be accounted for by genetic differences
-estimate of how much trait is likely due to genetics based on particular population in particular point in time |
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Environmentality (e2)
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extent to which observed variation in traits can be traced to environmental differences
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Shared Environment
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aspects of family environment generally same for all children in household
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Nonshared Environment
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experiences that relatives have that make them different from one another
-larger impact on personality development |
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Comparison bw MZ and DZ twins raised together
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h2 = 2(rMZ - rDZ)
double the difference estimate Equal environment assumption (applies only to similar treatment related to specific characteristic under study) Assumption of representativeness (twins typical of population) |
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Comparison of MZ twins raised in separate environments
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h2 = rMZA
Selection process (adoptive families are selected and may not be different from each other ) Representativeness |
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Variance in personality traits
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Heritability for personality traits .40-.60
Observed differences in personality traits = 40% genetics + 0% shared enviro + 40% nonshared enviro + 20% error |
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Heritability in FFM
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MZ reared apart have higher scores than DZ reared together
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Passive genotype-environment correlation
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person isn't influencing directly but environment facilitates of hinders expression of certain genes
-parents provide both genes and env't that is favourable / unfavourable to development of those genes |
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Active genotype-environment correlation
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individual seeks out environments that help develop genes fully
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Reactive genotype-environment correlation
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can be shown by children at risk for antisocial behaviour who are more aggressive than children not at risk and likely to elicit more negative reactions in parents
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Sex differences in heterosexual mating behaviour
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men prefer physical attractiveness and younger mates, desire more sexual partners
women prefer economic security and older mates, more physical investment |
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Brain and personality
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-hypothalamus secretes hormones
-amygdala for emotions and fear, connected to hippocampus (memories) -2 frontal lobes work in cold and hot processes |
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Nervous system Organization
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Central NS -> Brain & Spiral cord
Peripheral NS -> Somatic NS & Automatic NS (Sympathetic & Parasympathetic) |
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Bodily Responses
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ANS responds to arousing events
Galvanic skin response, Electromyography |
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Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)
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measures how quickly electrical current runs throw skin (sweat)
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Electromyography (EMG)
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measures muscle activity
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Brain Structure
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differences in size and weight and cell numbers of brain parts
CT scan, MRI |
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Computerized Tomography (CT) Scan
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takes high resolution X-ray of brain
cross sections of brain, shows overall structres |
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
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uses strong magnetic field to cause nuclei of some atoms to resonate then detects activity of atoms using radio frequency waves
multi-dimensional photos of brain very detailed, does not indication of how brain is functioning |
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Brain Activity
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EEG, EP, PET, fMRI
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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uses electrodes placed on scalp to measure activity
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Evoked Potential (EP)
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looks at EEG activity in response to specific stimulus doesn't give extremely targeted information or much detail
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Positron Emission Topography
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inject radioactive glucose-like substance into brain and see which areas of brain use that glucose for fuel, however, substance breaks down quickly
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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
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captures multi-dimensional detail as well as activity
tracks oxygen to see which brain areas are more activated however, blood oxygen levels fluctuate after few seconds |
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Biochemical Activity
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Stress hormones - norepinephrine, epinephrine
Mood regulation - dopamine, serotonin -antidepressants block reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin, antianxiety drugs mimic GABA -measure NT levels or NT byproducts -challenge test increases / decreases NT |
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Temperament
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stable across life span, expressed through general energy levels, present from early childhood, determined by genetics, changeable through experience, similar in other species
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General Convergence
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Extraversion: positive emotion, sociability, approach orientation, reward sensitivity, social rewards
Neuroticism: negative emotion, anxiety, punishment sensitivity, withdrawal Impulsivity: psychoticism, lack of constraint, sensation seeking, novelty seeking, lack of conscientiousness, lack of agreeableness |
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Eysenck's PEN Model
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Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism
-universality of traits, stable across time, traits have moderate heritability |
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Eysenck's Extraversion hypothesis
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hypothesized that introverts have naturally higher levels of arousal, don't want to increase arousal like extroverts
-found no significant differences in baseline levels of arousal, but significant difference in arousability -preferred noise level study |
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Eysenck's Neuroticism hypothesis
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hypothesized that neuroticism related to increased sensitivity/instability of emotion regulation centres
-related to greater activation of sympathetic NS (heart rate and startle response) in response to intense and fearful stimuli |
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Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST)
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1. Flight-fight-freeze system (FFFS)
2. Behavioural approach system (BAS) 3. Behavioural inhibition system (BIS) -explain individual differences in cognitions, emotions and behaviour -sensitivity to reward and punishment -guessing game study |
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Flight-Fight-Freeze System (RST)
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-wants to avoid punishment, fear / phobia response, related to psychoticism & neurotic-introversion
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Behavioural Approach System (RST)
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-seeks reward, hope / pleasure, can lead to addiction, related to neurotic-extraversion
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Behavioural Inhibition System (RST)
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-assess risk and conflict, worry / OCD, related to neuroticism
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Brain Structure - Extraversion and Neuroticism
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Cortex - extraverts have thinner sections of right FC, low neurotics had thicker sections of left FC
Amygdala - extraverts had more gray matter in left amygdala, high neurotics had more gray matter in right amygdala |
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Brain Activity - Extraversion and Neuroticism
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Cortex - extraverts more activation in temporal and frontal lobes for pleasant stimuli, neurotics more activation in temporal and frontal lobes for unpleasant stimuli
Left-right asymmetry - L hemi more activated for positive emotions, R hemi for negative emotions; high neurotics show more assymetry in R hemi, extraverts show more asymmetry in L hemi Amygdala - extraversion related to increased amygdala activity to happy faces |
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Biochemistry - Extraversion and Neuroticism
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-introverts more sensitive to fluctuations in dopamine, extraverts have more dopamineactivity
-people high in BIS and had decreased serotonin levels showed more amygdala activation in response to fearful faces |
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Sensation Seeking
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seeking of varied, complex, and intense sensations and willingness to take risks (thrilling and arousing experiences, not necessarily new ones)
Subscales - Experience seeking, Boredom susceptibility, Thrill and adventure seeking, Disinhibition |
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Individual differences in impulsivity and sensation seeking
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gender (men), age (younger), sexual activities and experiences, drug use, music preferences, career paths (constantly changing work environments)
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Physiological Responses - Impulsivity and Sensation Seeking
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-high SS show interest / approach, low SS show more fear / startle responses
-high SS show more brain activation in arousal and reinforcement centres, low SS show more activation in decision making and emotion regulation centres |
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Biochemical Activity - Impulsivity and Sensation Seeking
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high sensation seeking comes from interaction
-dopamine reactivity to approach new stimuli -low serotonin fails to inhibit impulsive behaviour -low norepinephrine / epinephrine lowers stress response and fear of punishment -testosterone linked to aggression & sexuality, (sociability, dominance, sexual experience, frustration in men), (unprovoked violent crime, sexual interst, sociability, impulsivity in women) |
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Psychic Determinism
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everything that happens in person's mind, including everything person thinks and does, has specific cause
-free will and random accidents do not exist |
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Internal Structure
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mind is made of separate parts that function independently and can conflict with each other
Id, Ego, Superego |
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Topographic Model
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Conscious: part of mental functioning you can observe
Preconscious: ideas you are not currently aware of but can be brought into awareness Unconscious: areas and processes of mimind which person is not aware |
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Primary Process Thinking - Id
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immediate gratification of desires
thinks without negatives, practicalities, dangers seen in very young children, delirium and dreams can leak out in slips of tongue, accidents, memory lapses operates on plesaure principles |
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Secondary Process Thinking - Ego
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rational and practical
able to delay or redirect gratification |
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Compromise Formation
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ego's main job is to find compromise among different structures of mind and different things individual wants at same time
(modern psychoanalytic thought) |
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Mental Energy
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assumption that psychological part of mind needs energy
Libido: mental of psychic energy used by mind amount of energy is fixed and finite |
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Libido
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life drive or sexual drive
creation, protection, enjoyment of life, creativity, productivity, growth |
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Thanatos
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drive toward death
introduced later to account for destructive activity |
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Psychological Development
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focus on where psychic energy is and how it is used
-each stage has erogenous zone, psychological theme and adult character type resulting from fixation / regression -problems include Freud's patients having emotional problems, children don't understand genital differences and genders don't differ in morality |
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Oral Stage
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Span: birth-18 months
Erogenous zone: Mouth, lips and tongue -baby is all id Psychological theme: Dependency Adult character type: Oral incorporative personality (dependency if infant has inadequate caregiving early in stage) Oral sadistic personality (aggression if infant has trouble later on) -eating, drinking, smoking, kissing, gullible, hoarding |
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Anal Stage
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Span: 18 months-3 years
Erogenous zone: Anus -try to figure out what they can get away with Psychological theme: Self-control and obedience -either have unreasonable expectations or never demand control of urges Adult character type: Anal expulsive personality (uninhibited, resisting authority) Anal retentive personality (obsessive, submit to authority) |
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Phallic Stage
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Span: 2-5 years
Erogenous zone: Penis Psychological theme: gender identity, sexuality, love, jealousy -Oedipus complex, penis envy, castration anxiety, take on many of same-sex parent's attitudes and values -development of morality, conscience and superego Adult character type: Hysterical character (exaggerated femininity) |
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Latency
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Span: 5-puberty
no significant development |
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Genital Stage
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Span: puberty on
Erogenous zone: Genitals, reproduction -focus on creation and enhancement of life Psychological theme: Maturity Achievement: well adjusted and balanced, mental health (ability to love and work) |
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Anxiety
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psychic conflict
Conversion reaction: physical symptoms like neurosis or phobia |
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Defense Mechanisms
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techniques ego uses to keep certain thoughts and impulses hidden in order to avoid anxiety
Denial, |
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Denial
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refusal to acknowledge or failure to see source of anxiety
blame failures on external circumstances or other people |
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Repression
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banishing past from present awareness
stronger anxiety would be, more it is repressed trying to repress can backfire, memories can't be kept out of consciousness for long |
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Reaction Formation
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instigation of opposite of forbidden thoughts, feelings and impulses
-high sex guilt and homophobia |
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Projection
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attributing to someone else thought or impulse that is feared in oneself
-participants rated others worse on own negative repressed trait |
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Rationalization
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concoction of rational reason for doing something that would otherwise cause shame
-trivialization, cognitive dissonance |
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Intellectualization
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turning anxiety-provoking feeling into thought that is cool, abstract and analytical
-warfare and medicine, when reality is horrifying or too painful to deal with directly |
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Displacement
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replacing one object of emotion with another; other object is safer target and usually resembles real one
-catharsis; generally ineffective at reducing emotion |
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Sublimation
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forbidden impulses transformed into constructive behaviours
-no evidence |
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Psychoanalysis
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based on case studies and patients (Anna O, rat man, wolf man)
Transference: tendency to transfer ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving towards relationship figure to therapist |
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Uncovering Unconscious
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Free association (patients flow from one thought to the next and reveal unconscious thoughts)
Dream analysis (Manifest vs. Latent content) -mention, expression, suppression dream study Parapraxes - mistakes in speaking and acting Symbolic behaviour Humour |
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Psychoanalytic Theory Criticisms
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-excessive complexity, dependence on case studies (introspection and insight), lacks operational definitions, untestability, sexism
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Psychoanalytic Theory Merits
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importance of unconscious processes, conflicting motives produce anxiety, personality develops across life span, early life experiences important, personality moves from immature to interdependent state
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Attachment Theory
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early interactions with primary caregivers shape expectations surrounding responsiveness and availability of close others
-develop internal working models, shape interactions with others later in life -correlation bw early attachment and adult attachment is r = .39 |
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Strange Situation
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Secure - used mother as secure base to explore and safe haven to return for safety and comfort
Avoidant - oblivious to mother's departure, did not seek her as safe haven Anxious-ambivalent - cried when mother left,did not seem to accept comfort upon return Disorganized - parents full of fear or experienced trauma |
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Adult Romantic Attachment
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Attachment Avoidance: discomfort with emotional intimacy, independence, affection is difficult
-cope alone during break ups, use work to escape relationships Attachment Anxiety: fear rejection and abandonment, hypervigilant in detecting rejection, oversensitive, highly reactive -increased anxiety with separations, more likely to use drugs and alcohol and move onto others during breakups, personal lives interfere with work, feel misunderstood and underappreciated, lowest income Securely attached: use social coping strategies to deal with breakups, positive approach to work, less likely to procrastinate or fear rejection from coworkers |
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Attachment figures studies
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-people primed for threat after viewing names of attachment figures
-viewing romantic partner lowered perceived pain |
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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
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can disrupt or enhance neuron activity so researchers can pinpoint exact area
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Dopamine
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pleasure, regulates movement, learning, attention
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Serotonin
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mood, arousal, control of sleeping and eating, pain
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RST Guessing game study
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trials where responding correctly won money and nonresponding meant nothing, or where responding incorrectly had punishment and nonresponding meant nothing
-high BAS learned faster from reacting, high FFFS / BIS learned faster from withholding |
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Experience Seeking
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desire for moderate arousal through different experiences involving mind and senses
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Boredom Susceptibility
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need for change and variety, aversion to routine
(subscale of sensation seeking) |
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Thrill and Adventure Seeking
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arousal seeking through physical sensations produed by speed, height, falling, danger
(subscale of sensation seeking) |
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Disinhibition
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extent to which people have lowered social inhibitions and enjoy letting loose without thinking about proper behaviour or social norms
(subscale of sensation seeking) |
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Eros
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life instincts concerned with survival and need for food, water, air, sex
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Internal Working Model
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infant who trusts mother will be responsive and accessible will be less fearful than infant who does not have confidence mother will be available
confidence built up slowly from birth through adolescence and remains relatively unchanged through adulthood -working model of others comes from expectations of caregiver's responsiveness -working model of self comes from feelings of worthiness, loveability and competence |
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Attachment styles in military spouses
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anxious women experienced more distress during separation and reunion (unrealistic explanations)
anxious women also perceive less spousal support during pregnancy |
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Humanistic Psychology
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to understand person, you must understand their unique view of reality
-emphasizes responsibility, growth, actualizing tendency |
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Self-Determination Theory
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reason why we do something, how another communicates expectations
Extrinsic motivation: motivated by some external pressure or reward Hedonia: maximize pleasure and minimize pain Intrinsic motivation: perform activity by choice and for enjoyment of it (reduced by tangible rewards, expectations, controlling behaviour) Eudaimonia: seeking deeper meaning in life by pursuing important goals, building relationships, and being aware of taking responsibility for one's choices in life |
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3 fundamental psychological needs
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Autonomy, Relatedness, Competence
everyone has these intrinsic goals, without we will suffer |
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Autonomy
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people need to feel control over situation, can't feel forced
-can encourage by providing with choice, minimizing pressure to comply, supporting to take initiative, respecting point of view |
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Competence
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people like feeling that they've mastered something, people feel better at making decisions when they have considered other ideas
-encourage with developmentally appropriate task levels, realistic goals, clear steps and expected outcomes, optimal challenge |
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Relatedness
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important that people know they have someone they can care for receive care from; want to feel valued
-encourage with involvement (interest shown, time spent, and energy invested by others) -if you succeed in building emotional connection with someone, you perceive their behaviours as less controlling and can buffer against threats to autonomy -study where participants in secure relationship condition indicated higher levels of energy than anxious or avoidant |
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Parental autonomy support and self acceptance in gays
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measured people's implicit sexual orientations (IAT with gay and straight)
-perceiving fathers as autonomy supportive associated with more congruence bw implicit and explicit sexual orientation -lower perceived father autonomy support associated with less congruence -more implicit gay orientations related to more homophobic attitudes |
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Flow
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subjective experience of autotelic activity (enjoyable for own sake)
tremendous concentration, total lack of distractibility, thoughts concerning only activity at hand, mood slightly elevated, time seems to pass very quickly arises when challenges of activity match person's skills |
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Cultural differences in controlling teacher behaviours
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Chinese children perceived same behaviours as less controlling than American children
more emotional connectedness with one's teacher related to perceiving behaviours as less threatening, more motivated in classroom |
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Relatedness in college students
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relatedness important source of motivation for students, provide intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for university attendance
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Overjustification Effect
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people discount own high intrinsic reasons for doing activity when additional, more salient extrinsic reason introduced
-toddler's helping behaviour decreased when receiving material reward than when receiving verbal praise |
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Self-Efficacy
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belief that one can be competent and effective at some activity (Outcome and Efficacy expectation)
-affected by personal experiences, watching success and failure of others, social persuasion, physical and emotional states |
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Self-Regulation
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act of adjusting behaviours and attitudes to increase or decrease motivation
-give into temptations more when cognitive resources depleted (cognitive load study |
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Causality Orientations
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typical ways of self-regulating, what people expect from world and how they approach specific situations
Autonomous, Controlled, Impersonal when all 3 needs are met, better self-regulation and improved performance, psychologically more well-adjusted |
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Autonomous Orientation
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preference for interest-enhancing and optimally challenging situations, interpret situations as more autonomy supportive, enhanced psychological well-being
-study where autonomy orientation positively related to error detection and increased performance in Go / No go task |
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Controlled Orientation
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how people look for controls in env't and let env't determine and regulate behaviour
controlled / motivated by rewards and external demands, compromised well-being autonomy not satisfied |
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Impersonal Orientation
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how people feel they lack control over important outcomes
all needs unfulfilled, no motivation, compromised well-being |
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Health Behaviours
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people's autonomy, relatedness, and competence predicts smoking, blood sugar, weight, exercise, dental care
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Sports Behaviours
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Intrinsic motivation, Identified regulation, Introjected regulation, External regulation, Amotivation
-gymnasts with autonomy supportive coaches and parents had intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, controlling coaches and parents caused introjected regulation and external regulation, less energy at practise -better self-regulatory patterns lead to more sport engagement and well-being, practises that meet all needs lead to better feelings after practise |
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Autonomous motivation at work
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encourage employee involvement, listen and acknowledge perspectives, offer choices, provide sincere, positive feedback, minimize coercive controls, develop talent and share knowledge
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Giving praise
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be specific and sincere, never offer praise and ask for favour at same time, praise process not outcome, look for something not obvious to praise, praise behind peoples' backs
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Pursuit of happiness
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freely choosing what to pursue, feeling competent in one's endeavours and being meaninfully related to others along way
people who pursue connectedness goals happier than people who pursue competitive goals |
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Outcome Expectation
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belief that behaving in certain way will produce certain outcome
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Efficacy Expectation
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belief one is capable of acting in certain way (more important than outcome expectation)
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External Regulation
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completely extrinsic, controlled by outside
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Introjected Regulation
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when behaviour is controlled by something within
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Identified Regulation
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when we accept activity as personally meaningful
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Integrated Regulation
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when people internalize goals and values of activity even though it is not inherently interesting
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Perception
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people predisposed to perceive world in different ways
Priming: activation of concept or idea by repeatedly perceiving it or thinking about it Chronic accessibility: tendency of idea or concept to easily come to mind |
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Rejection Sensitivity
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people especially aware of suggestions of impending rejection (attachment anxiety)
affects interpretation of ambiguous signals -study showed women's rejection sensitivity predicted more negative partner behaviours during conflict, showed self-fulfilling prophecy |
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Personality Disorders
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patterns of thought, feeling, and behaviour beyond normal range of psychological variation
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Borderline Personality Disorder
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extreme / dangerous pattern of emotional instability and emptiness, confused identity, tendencies of self-harm
-rapid modd shifts and uncontrollable anger with little or no cause, self-destructive acts, identity disturbance, chronic emptiness, unstable relationships, fear of abandonment -BPD patients had highest scores on rejection sensitivity relative to social phobics, mood disorders, anxiety disorders |
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Aggression
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tendency to perceive others as having hostile intentions or as threat
-study where memory may be related to hostile themes for hostile people (more aggressive people recalled more details of story when primed with hostile words than less aggressive people) |
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Locus of Control
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people's beliefs about control of reinforcements and outcomes in their lives, tends to be stable
Internals believe they have fair amount of control over what happens to them, tend to hold leadership positions and participate in activities Externals tend to think they have little control over situations, believe more in fate, chance, more talkative to strangers |
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Internal LOC
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take action, academic success, delay gratification, assume responsibility, better organizational satisfaction and success, cardiovascular health, health promoting behaviours, psychological health
-report less stress, less overwhelmed by challenges, more intrinsic motivation to go to work, less burnt out, less likely to experience depression and anxiety and lower suicide rates -studies found perceived control related to hoarding behaviours and experiencing flow |
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Fate attributions study
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assessed relationships bw culture, religious affiliation, LOC, fate attributions
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SE, N, LOC, GSF
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SE: how we evaluate ourseles
N: how anxious and vulnerable to negative emotions LOC: people's beliefs about causes of their outcomes GSE: belief one can be competent at some activity -meta-analysis found all 4 measures loaded on one factor that explained relationships bw them |
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Learned Helplessness
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beliefs about control, expectations about specific task, past experiences about uncontrollable outcomes
1. Behaviour and actions are noncontingent 2. Pessimistic expectations 3. Decrease in motivation |
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Hopelessness model of depression
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belief that one is helpless in negative and helplessness will continue in future
-can feel helpless without hopelessness if anticipate that future will change for better |
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Information processing explanation of learned helplessness
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prolonged cognitive activity without cognitive gain leads to helplessness symptoms
-interrupting people's hypothesis testing ability was enough to show signs of helplessness (decrease in performance and affect) |
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Explanatory Styles
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Internal vs. External (you or situation)
Stable vs. Unstable (permanent or temporary) Global vs. Specific (extends to other domains) |
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Optimistic Explanatory Style
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people view negative events as not own fault (external), unlikely to happen again (unstable), and limited to one aspect of lives (specific)
-show greater persistence and motivation in school -in soccer team, had more goals shots than pessimists, more pass completion, performed at consistent level |
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Pessimistic Explanatory Style
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people view negative events as own fault (internal), likely to happen again (stable), and undermining other aspects of lives (general)
-higher likelihood of experiencing depression -in study, both negative explanatory style and uncontrollability predicted depressive symptoms -in soccer team, pessimists performed worse than optimists when team was losing |
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Dispositional Optimism
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general expectation that good things will happen in future, events and circumstances will work out for best, and good will overcome bad
-don't need to be in control of destiny to feel confidence |
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Dispositional Optimism studies
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-studies found some 25% variance due to heritability, increasing self-esteem at 12 and 18 predicted adult dispositional optimism
-optimists viewed present as good as future, pessimists viewed future as much better than present -in gambling study, pessimists bet less after poor performance and undershot performance, pessimists did not bet less after poor performance and overshot their performance, remembered less losses |
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Optimism and Coping
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-optimists use problem-focused coping to try and tackle problem, pessimists use emotion-focused coping or avoidant coping
-optimistic beliefs and expectations more advantageous, alter physiological functioning and protect body from stress -optimists use better strategies, take action, make plans, engage in healthy behaviours, good at judging whether situation is controllable to change strategies accordingly |
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7 thoughts that are bad and shorten length of life
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Cynicism
Lack of meaning Fretting Lack of self control Anxiety Bottling it in Stress |
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Cultural differences in LOC
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individualistic cultures have internal LOC, sometimes illusion of control, and collectivist collectures have external LOC
-primary control changes circumstances, secondary control attempts to accommodate or accept situation to feel better |
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Gender differences in FFM
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women higher in neuroticism and agreeableness
-on facets of extraversion, women more warm, gregarious, positie emotions; men more assertive and excitement seeking -on facets on openness, women more open to diff eelings, men more open to diff ideas gender differences most marked in more prosperous countries where women have more educational opportunities, possibly because men can pursue individual interests and become more agentic |
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Gender and Implicit-Explicit Personalities
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explicitly, women reported more neuroticism, agreeableness, extraversion and conscientiousness, but implicitly yielded weak differences
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Gender and agreeableness in job success
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aggreeableness significantly negatively predicting earnings for men, effect for women much weaker
less ageeable men made more |
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Gender and affect intensity
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people who reported intense positive emotions also reported intense negative (and vice versa)
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Gender, anxiety, attentional biases
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dot-probe with basic emotion faces vs. neutral
-with higher levels of anxiety, people quicker to respond to which side dot is on when threatening face is also on that side (attention already drawn to that side) -people with normal anxiety showed no differences bw where faces were shown -anxiety related to orienting towards angry faces, high anxiety women showed more attentional bias to angry faces, high anxiety men showed more attention to happy faces -men may be more inclined to approach things to deal with anxiety whereas women may be more focused on threat detection |
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Gender and adult attachment
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men had higher avoidance scores and lower anxiety scores than women, but results were meaningless (nonsignificant)
women more different from each other than from men |
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Double Shot Hypothesis
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emotional and sexual infidelity not perceived as independent events
may perceive that women who are sexually involved with man must have feelings for them, but it may just be sex for men -forced choice paradigm; men chose sexual infidelity as more distressing, women chose emotional infidelity as more distressing -women reported being more jealous in both scenarios |
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Gender, aggression, testosterone
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men show more unprovoked aggression than women, also more physically aggressive
higher levels of testosterone linked to more aggressive behaviours -testosterone measured in female inmates |
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Definition of gender
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Sex: biological classification
Social gender: social classification Unidimensional mode: Masculinity <- -> Femininity Two-dimensional model: Masculinity (low/high) Femininity (low/high) |
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Masculinity, femininity, helping behaviour
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participants heard fellow participant choking over intercom
-low masculinity individuals much more likely to help than high masculinity individuals (femininity had no effect) -could be due to fear of embarassment, want to appear calm and collected in strange situations Masculinity = dominance-poise? -men engage in more helping behaviour than women especially when being watched, more rescuing and heroic with strangers, where women help more with children and elderly |
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Reciprocal impact hypothesis of gender-related traits
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Agentic traits <- -> success in occupational roles
Communal traits <- -> success in communal roles -agency predicted objective and subjective career success, career success lead to increase in agency -didn't find support for relationship bw communal traits and parenthood roles -study is flawed because only measured year after graduation |
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Gendered differences in personality
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view of individual is difficult because of stereotypes, self-fulfilling prophecies, stereotype threat, and gender-specific issues (self-esteem in boys)
more differences bw individuals than genders |
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Gender-based rejection sensitivity
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women should be prepared to detect gender disadvantage
gender-threat activation should trigger rejection-prevention efforts that include self-silencing and avoiding opportunities for advancement that may lead to rejection, engage in self-censorship -in law school, higher GRS women reported more self-doubt than low GRS women, perceived negative events as being related to gender, use more self-silencing whereas low GRS women used more confrontation |
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Sexual Behaviour Continuum
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exclusively heterosexual <--> exclusively homosexual
Kinsey's model focused too much on sexual behaviour -not everyone who reports same-sex interactions report themselves as homosexual |
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Sexual Orientation
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Sexual attraction: thoughts, feelings, sexual desires
Sexual behaviour: actions Sexual identity: labels person with sexuality THESE ALL MAKE UP Sexual orientation: erotic arousal, feelings, fantasies and behaviours |
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Biological theories of sexual orientation
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Male alliance theory: those who live together bond through intimacy
Kin altruism theory: homosexuals invest in nieces and nephews Sexually antagonistic theory: same-sex gene passed down through X chromosome, gay men's female relatives had more children than straight men's, female relatives of gay men showed greater social ascension |
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Biological explanations of sexual orientation
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Genetics - moderate heritability for men
Prenatal factors - prenatal hormones indirectly linked to brain development and later sexual orientation? high androgen exposure linked to female attraction, low androgen exposure linked to male attraction -men have lower 2D-4D ratios than women and gay men -gender noncomformity better predictor of sexual orientation in men than women Fraternal birth order and maternal immune response - gay men tend to have more older brothers than straight men; mother's body reacts to H-Y antigens and triggers immune response |
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Interactionist theories of sexual orientation
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Exotic becomes erotic - gender noncomformity is important childhood predictor of adult sexual orientation
Biobehavioural model of love and desire - sexual orientation combo of sexual desire and attachment -female sexuality different from male sexuality, more fluidity |
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Female Bisexuality
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women had more fluctuations in same and opposite sex attraction and behaviours, but centred around some set point
no support for transitional stage -when viewing photos of swimsuit models, bisexual people had no clear preference for gender in attractiveness ratings whereas heterosexuals rated other genders as more attractive |
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Facial features and homosexuality
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heterosexual men had longer face with protrusive nose
homosexual men had distinct jawline with wider face and shorter nose, thicker eyebrows can't judge sexual orientation based on facial features |
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Orientation and relationships
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lesbians reported higher intimacy, more equality
homosexuals reported more autonomy heterosexual married couples reported more barriers |
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Communion
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belief that women are concerned with otehrs and social group and feeling connected
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Agency
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idea that men focus on individual, self-protection and self-assertion
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Social Role Theory
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men and women have developed differences due to roles they hold in society (gender differences due to power / status and not genetics)
-men develop dominant behaviour, women develop subordinate behaviour -people judge emotions, choose toys, rate aggression differently based on gender they think they are rating |
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Gender Identity
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1. Membership knowledge
2. Gender compatibility 3. Gender conformity pressure 4. Intergroup bias |
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Resilience
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ability to recover from tragedy, adversity, hardship, or to adapt to ongoing life stressors
-possible responses to stress include succumbing, survival with impairment, recovery / resilience and thriving |
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Health behaviour models
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suggest some people adopt healthier lifestyles and take better care of themselves; high in conscientiousness, internal LOC
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Transacational stress moderation models
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suggest personality traits may influence person's exposure to stressful / dangerous situations
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Constitutional predisposition models
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some genetic factor influences both personality and disease
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Interactional stress moderation models
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personality characteristics modify physiological responses by reducing / increasing them
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Hardiness
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believe they can control own outcomes (internal LOC), actively engaged in social world, see negative event as opportunity rather than downfall, seek fulfillment, reflect on experiences to grow and develop, better health, protection against burnout, better quality of life, more effective coping
-however, concept overlaps with other concepts |
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Transformational coping
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people high in hardiness turn experience into less threatening, face problems rather than avoid them, strive to understand and decrease stress
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Ego / Trait Resilience
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ability to modify one's responses to meet requirements of stressful situation and return to one's characteristic level of self-regulation after stressor
-resilients regulate own behaviour, good balance of self-control |
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Positive vs. Negative Emotions
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in non-stressful situations, positive and negative emotions are not negatively correlated, however, they are in stressful situations
positive emotions don't involve as much physical arousal, are outnumbered by negative emotions, have less unique facial expressions, don't seem to create urgency of fight-flight response |
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Broaden-and-build theory
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positive emotions broaden people's thoughts, awareness and actions, think about possibilities beyond immediate situation, helps us bank new resources
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Positives of positive emotion
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1. Foster adaptive ways of coping
2. Repair harmful physiological effects of negative emotions 3. Increase flexibility in thinking 4. Build enduring social connections 5. Increase future well-being |
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7 habits of highly resilient people
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1. Positive emotions and laughter
2. Loving relationships with family and friends 3. Meaningful life 4. Optimism and hope 5. Gratitude 6. Relaxation 7. Happiness |
