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83 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Somatosenses
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o Body position senses
• Proprioception- is the sense of the relative position of neighbouring parts of the body • Kinaesthesis • Vestibular sense- a sensory system located in structures of the inner ear that registers the orientation of the head o cutaneous senses • Touch • Temperature • Pain |
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4 touch receptor types
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detect light touch/detail, pressure, stretch, vibration
differ in their receptive field sizes, and how rapidly they adapt |
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• Receptive fields
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o Small RF in hand
o Farther up arm, poor RF o Testing with two point discrimination o Edge detectors |
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temp. o Warm fibers
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Respond best around 44 C
• Respond to increases in temperature |
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temp. cold fibers
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• Respond best around 30 C
• Respond to decreases in temperature • Also responds to extreme heat |
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pain receptors are called
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nociceptors
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o Sensory component
and o Emotional component |
• Somatosensory cortex
and • Limbic system (subcortical structures) |
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pain is affected and lessened by
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o Affected by
• Expectation • Attention and current thoughts • Culture pain is lessened by endorphins Pain is lessened by tactile stimulation (gate control theory) |
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• Gate control theory-
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touch receptors go in laterally to inhibit pain receptors. Nerve fibers that are pain signals and other fibers sending are going to the brain together. Pain tends to excite general sensitivity to stimulation in that general area but other stimulation like pressure tends to inhibit pain stimulation??
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cortical magnification/magnification factor
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Cortical magnification describes how many neurons in an area of the visual cortex are 'responsible' for processing a stimulus of a given size, as a function of visual field location
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• Aristotle illusion:
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fingers together, feelings an object as one thing. Fingers crossed, feeling one object as two things
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Haptic exploration
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purposive action patterns that perceivers execute in order to encode properties of surfaces and objects, patterns that are executed spontaneously and also appear to optimize information uptake.
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Body Position Senses
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• Vestibular Sense (which way is up)
o Semicircular canals in ear o Movement of fluid triggers receptors o Sensors at the base of each loop to detect motion in three dimensions • Proprioception (limb positions) • Kinaesthesis (body movement) |
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Motor control
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Rapid, moment by moment interaction between sensory input and motor commands
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o Moving your body changes:
o Changing these inputs changes: |
• Your body position ( propriocept, kinaesthesis, vestib.)
• What is touching you (cutaneous senses) • What you see (vision) these change: • How much you should move each muscle to do a task |
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the chemical senses
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smell
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o Olfactory epithelium
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o At the top of the sinuses
o Contains olfactory receptor neurons o Odorant molecules contact receptors o There are approx 1,000 kinds of receptors! One odor molecule will match up to one kind of receptor. Has to match up to a certain receptor. This is why we cannot describe smells, but can describe color and vision (only four recepotrs) |
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smell pathway
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o Olfactory epithelium
olfactory receptor neurons • Olfactory bulb • Olfactory tract- long and skinny going into the brain • Primary oldfactory cortex |
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3 structures on the tongue
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• Papillae ( bumbs on your tongue)
• Taste buds (small lumbs inside the bumps) • Taste cells (receptors) |
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taste receptors
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• Five types: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory, rich, meaty) umami: tomatoes, ext.
• Distributed evenly throughout the tongue • Maybe six types? Fatty receptor? |
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where in the brain does the taste get decoded?
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o Primary gustatory cortex
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flavor
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combining taste and smell in the orbital frontal cortex
• Flavor • not the same as taste! • Taste plus smell = flavor • Combined in the orbital frontal cortex |
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Chemesthesis
• Detection of noxious chemicals by mucous membranes |
o Capsaicin (chili peppers), cinnamon oil, mustard oil
o CO2, (carbonation) o Alcohol o Acids o Nicotine • Elicits “nocifensive” (protective) responses. Response that is potentially damaging to tissue. o Sweating o Tearing o Running nose o Decreased respiration (breathing) |
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Sound
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• Wavelengths in air
• Sound is pressure waves frequency in Hz (pitch) |
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frequency high and low pitch
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o shorter wavelengths= higher pitched
longer wavelengths- lower pitched |
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• amplitude (loudness)
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low amplitude= quite sounds
how tall a wavelength is (pressure) |
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o decibel scale
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the amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.
o db is a logarithmic function of pressure o similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes |
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• pure tones vs complex sounds ( timbre)
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pure tones are a single frequency
o complex sounds have multiple frequencies o all complex sounds- noise |
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o complex musical tones have
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• a fundamental frequency which gives them their pitch
• it also is the sound and wave form repeated • harmonics (overtones) what makes it sound like an instrument. Tones of wavelengths all together. We don’t hear all of the wavelengths we only hear the violin note. |
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Sound as Percept
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range of hearing (audibility curve)
loudness (amplitude) pitch (frequency) |
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o tone chroma
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(where on the musical scale a note is)
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audibility curve
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(how our sensitivity changes with pitch)
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timbre
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The timbre of a sound depends on its wave form, which varies with the number of overtones, or harmonics, that are present, their frequencies, and their relative intensities. The illustration shows the wave form that results when pure tones of frequencies 100, 300, and 500 hertz (cycles per second) and relative amplitudes of 10, 5, and 2.5 are synthesized into a complex tone.
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o perception of relations between different pitches
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• octave interval= doubling the frequency
• musical “fifth” interval = 1.5 x the frequency • diatonic scale |
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octave interval=
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doubling the frequency
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the inner ear: • The cochlea
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o Coiled up in the ear
o Contains flued and hair cells o Basilar membrane-inside the cochlea |
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• Transduction in the cochlea
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o Sound pressure moves the fluid
o Fluid bends the membrane o Hair cells move which signals the auditory nerve fibers |
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• transduction of sound to the brain
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o Auditory nerve
o Medial geniculate nucleus (in the thalamus) o From there goes to the primary auditory cortex o Secondary auditory cortex o Auditory association cortex |
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Frequency Analysis
• How do you know how high pitched a sound is |
o Place coding
o firing rate (phase locking) o tonotopic map in cortex |
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o tonotopic map in cortex
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• the different frequencies are laid out in a systematic way
• plasticity (practice with one frequency increases cortex devoted to that frequency) |
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o Place coding
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• Traveling waves in cochlea
• The eardrum setting up these traveling waves and the high frequency peek at the closer end and the low frequencies peek at the far end • Each frequency that were sensitive to is going to have its maximal effect in the cochlea • “big waves travel farther” (big= lower frequencies) |
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o firing rate (phase locking)
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• cells fire at the same rate as arriving sound waves
• only works for lower frequencies (cells can’t fire fast enough for higher frequences) |
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o tonotopic map in cortex
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• the different frequencies are laid out in a systematic way
• plasticity (practice with one frequency increases cortex devoted to that frequency) |
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how do we localize where the sound is?
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• Interaural time difference
o Caused by delay in reaching far war o Best for low frequencies • Interaural level difference o Caused by “acoustic shadow” (you head is in the way) o Best for high frequencies- low frequencies blow right past • Location coding in the cortex o Neurons tuned to particular areas of space o Panoramic neurons • Respond to all regions of space • Distinguish locations with different patterns of firing • near head neurons |
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Inner ear
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cochlea
basilar membrane hair cells transduction in the cochlea |
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to the brain
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auditory nerve
medial geniculate nucleus primary auditory cortex, secondary auditory cortex, auditory association cortex |
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When there is a lot of noise clatter, we can focus on one thing or another if we want. Our eardrum gets the chaotic wavelength of tons of sounds
• How do we separate sounds from different sources? • |
In order to separate the stuff that’s different, we need to group the stuff that’s the same
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• So how do we group sounds from the same source?
4 PRINCIPLES OF AUDITORY GROUPING |
o Location
o Similarity of timbre (same sound quality) o Of pitch • Implied polyphony (similar pitches get grouped) auditory illusion. it is the impression of two separate streams of sources of pitch • Captor tones (series of tones can “steal” a similar tone) • The basic task is x or y higher pitched? • Distractor tones make the task harder • Distractor tones can be captured, task is easy again o Onset and offset • Simultaneous start and stop suggests same source • Mismatched start and stop suggests different sources |
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PATTERN RECOGNITION IS A SEPARATE STAGE OF PROCESSING
• How do we know this? |
"visual agnosia”
o Can describe shapes o Can copy drawings o Cannot identify objects by sight o Cannot visually identify but can identify by feel! Whoa! |
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Theory and problems of theory 1: Template Matching for
pattern recognition |
• We store a mental “template” (ideal example) of familiar objects
• A perceived object gets matched to the closest template • Adjusting for size and orientation o Rotate vertical • Problems: o Can’t handle real world variation o Sometimes the closest match can be the wrong template o Gets thrown off by a single wrong element • Does have real worl applications o Works for severely limited range of stimuli • Template matching is a straw man theory o Makes it clear what humans don’t do o Makes it clear how difficult the problem is |
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Theory 2: Feature Nets
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• Assumptions
o Feature detectors are “nodes” in a network o We also have nodes for familiar patterns o Feature nodes are connected to pattern nodes • Think of nodes as a fishing net, point that are connected by string • We’ve built little nodes in our brain for letters and familiar words o Nodes can become “activated” o Nodes spread their activation to other nodes |
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• Data that feature Nets can Explain...
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o Repetition Priming- bring someone into a lab and show them a computer and ask to do some task if it’s a real or made up word. Faster the second time they see it
o Word frequency effect- common words are recognized faster than less common words o A frequently used node has a higher “ resting level” of activation and it makes it easier to activate at any time. o Word superiority effect- people are better when they see it in the context of the word • When a word getrs activated you get activation feeding back downwards that helps with the recognition of the individual letter • Bottom up o Over regularization errors • You see a type but you fail to actually see it. you actually see it as the correct word even though it isn’t • Effect of context on ambiguous stimuli • Ex: ABC 121314 • EX: apple • Eye fixation patterns in reading |
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o Repetition Priming-
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bring someone into a lab and show them a computer and ask to do some task if it’s a real or made up word. Faster the second time they see it
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o Word frequency effect-
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common words are recognized faster than less common words
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Speech perception
Distal stimulus |
constriction of air flow, The physical movement of somebody’s vocal track
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muscle movement for speech perception: Consonants
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o Moments when vocal tract is constricted
o Differ by place of articulation • Lips (p,v,m) • Teeth ridge (t, z,n) • Soft palate (k,g,ng) o Differ by manner of articulation • Plosive (p,d,k) • Fricative (f, v,s) • Approximants (l,r, w y) o Differ by voicing • Voiced ( b,z,g) • Unvoiced (p,s,k) |
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muscle movement for speech perception: vowels
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• Steady state flow of air through vocal tract
• Differ by tounge position and how rounded your lips are |
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o Consonants and vowels are phonemes
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• Not meaningful units
• Change one phoneme, completely the change word • Cat/pat • Cat/cut • Languages differ in their phonemes |
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• Change one phoneme, completely the change word
• Cat/pat • Cat/cut |
o These are minimal pairs
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• Two ways to graph speech wave forms
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o Amplitude (loudness) on Y axis
o Frequency (pitch) on Y axis • With amplitude shown by the darkness of the graph • Called a “spectrogram” |
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spectrogram
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frequency (pitch) on Y axis
• With amplitude shown by the darkness of the graph |
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formants in spectrograms
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o Formants (bands of sound intensity)
• First format is the fundamental frequency • Gives a basic sense of the speaker’s “pitch” • Several formants together (all flat) are a vowel o Formant transitions (swoops) • Transitions and busts of noise are consonants |
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Idealized formants
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• Synthesized speech
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o Allophones
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- two allophones are two physically different sounds that count as the same phoneme ( i.e. can’t produce a minimal pair)
• Front k and back k are allophones in English • T in table, stop and butter |
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o Coarticulation
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The surrounding phonemes influence pronunciation
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• The segmentation problem
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o Where are the word boundaries?
o Speech is a continuous stream of sound • There are often no breaks between words • Sometimes there are breaks within words o Actually not usually a problem for the listenter o Instead, a problem for the scientists: how do people do it? o Top-down effects help with speech perception |
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• Categorical perception
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- a sound halfway between two phonemes is interpreted as one phoneme or the other
• Hearers perceive them as one of the other and speakers intend them as one or the other |
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o combining auditory and visual information
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• we “lipread” all the time without realizing it
• what you see the lips do can change what you hear |
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• mcgirk effect
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• we “lipread” all the time without realizing it
• what you see the lips do can change what you hear |
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• understanding degraded speech-
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ability to reconstuct what is being said under degraded speech/noise
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o The inversion effect:
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upright faces are processed than upside down faces
o Upright faces: global processing o Upside down faces: feature by feature |
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Is face processing special?
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o The inversion effect: upright faces are processed than upside down faces
o Newborns prefer faces to other stimuli o Prosopagnosia: inability to recognize faces Can see inverted faces better then upright faces |
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• Six basic emotional expressions
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Anger, sadness, happiness, fear, surprise, disgust
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facial expressions
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o Recognized corss-culturally
o Occur in babies o We react to them “incorrigibly” we see facial experssions where their aren’t any. Example: in bread with whole in it o Species specific signaling devices? |
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• Deliberate smile vs duchenne smile
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forced vs natural
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o The puzzle of yawns
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Occur across species
• Highly “contangious” • Purpose is unclear |
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o What makes cute things cute?
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• Features associated with juvenility
• High rounded forehead • Large eyes • Eyes below the medline of the head • Flat face (small nose/snout/ muzzle) • Short limbs • Large paws or feet or hands • Big round ears • Floppy wobbly movements • We seem to be biologically programmed to respond to juvenile feature • Cartoonists exploit this by exaggerating juvenile or adult features. |
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sclera
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white of the eye
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Perceiving eye Gaze
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• We use eye contact as a form of social bonding
• We are extremely good at detecting where eyes are “pointing” • Used for establishing “joint attention” • A person with Autistism will be poor at interpreting eye gaze |
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emotional contagion
Imitation in animals? |
Things that look like imitation but aren't
Stimulus enhancement Response facilitation Trained responses Human-reared great apes – some signs of imitation |
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o Representational momentum
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• The final position of a moving object is mis localized ahead of where it really was
• The brain extrapolates movement a short way into the future |
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• The human talent for imitation
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o Imitation in neonates and older babies
o Observational learning o Chameleon effect: tendency to unconsciously copy • Body postures • Facial expressions • Breathing patterns • Emotions |
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o Do animals imitate?
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• Some behaviors look like imitatiaon, but aren’t
• Stimulus enhancement- really about drawing attention to the stimulus not imitating the behavior • Response facilitation • Trained responses • Great apes show some signs of imitation, especially when raised by humans |
