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271 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Levels of Organization of the Body
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Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organism
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Most Abundant Elements in the Body
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Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen
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The basic structural and functional component of life
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Cellular
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There are over ________ types of cells
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200
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Normal Arterial pH
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7.35-7.43
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Normal Blood COH level
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75-110 mg/100ml
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Dysplasia
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Deranged cell growth resulting in variation in size, shape, and appearance of cells
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Metaplasia
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Transformation of one cell type to another
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Percent of plasma membrane that is protein, lipids, and COH
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55, 43, 2
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Increase surface area to allow for better absorption
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Microvilli
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Proteins that are found on the inside and outside of the plasma membrane
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Peripheral
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Proteins that provide pores all the way through the plasma membrane
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Integrated
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Forms a major barrier to a vast number of water soluble substances
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Phospholipid bilayer
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Passive movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
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Diffusion
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Carrier substances are used to speed this process
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Faciliated Diffusion
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Passive movement of solvent molecules through a semi-permeable membrane due to concentration differences
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Osmosis
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Molecules or ions are transported through cell membranes by other molecules
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Active Transport
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Cell drinking
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Pinocytosis
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Cell eating
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Phagocytosis
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Membrane transport that required ATP
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Active transport
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Membrane transport that requires no energy
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Diffusion
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Examples of lipid soluble molecules
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steroids (estrogen, testosterone, hydro cortisone, etc.)
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In a hypotonic solution, the RBC will _______
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enlarge
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In a hypertonic solution the RBC will _______
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shrink
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Serves as matrix substance in which chemical reactions occur
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Cytoplasm
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Supporting framework within cytoplasm; transports materials and provided attachment for ribosomes
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ER
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Synthesize proteins
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Ribosomes
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Synthesizes COH and packages molecules for secretion; secretes lipids and glycoproteins
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Golgi Apparatus
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Release energy from food molecules and transform energy into usable ATP
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Mitochondria
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Digest foreign molecules and worn and damaged cells
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Lysosomes
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Forms ribosomal RNA
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Nucleolus
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Controls cell activity for carrying on life processes
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Chromatin
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Contains chromatin, nucleolus, and nucleoplasm
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Nucleus
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Extend through the nuclear membrane
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Nuclear pores
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A narrow space between the two walls of the nuclear membrane
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Perinuclear Cisternae
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Body composed of RNA and protein molecules
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Nucleolus
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The only time you see all 46 chromosomes
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During cell division
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Synthesize proteins to be excreted out of the cell
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Rough ER
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Involved in lipid synthesis, steroid hormone synthesis, and detoxification of alcohol, drugs, and chemicals
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Smooth ER
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Composed half of ER, mostly rough ER that secretes enzymes
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Pancreatic Cell
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Each subunit of Ribosome is a ribonucleoprotein with equal amounts of ___________________
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RNA and Protein
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Involved in synthesis of proteins that are used within the cell
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Free Ribosomes
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Has a double membrance
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Mitochondria
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Contains hydrolyzing enzymes and is involved in atrophy
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Lisosome
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The 5 main elements in the body
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Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus
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Protons plus Electrons
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Atomic Number
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Protons plus Neutrons
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Atomic Weight
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Dominant element in teeth and bones
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Calcium
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Dominant element in thyroid gland
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Iodine
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A bond where electrons are shared
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Covalent
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A bond where electrons are transfered
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Ionic
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Atoms that gain electrons and gain an overall negative charge
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Anion
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Atoms that lose electrons and gain an overall positive charge
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Cation
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Examples of inorganic compounds
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Water, Carbon Dioxide, Oxygen
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Compounds based on Carbon
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Organic
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4 major classes of organic compounds
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Nucleic Acids, Proteins, Lipids, COH
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Composed of nucleotides containing a nitrogen base, a 5 carbon sugar, and a phosphate group
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Nucleic Acid
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Purines
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Adenine, Guanine
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Pyrimidines
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Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil
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Acts as a template for protein
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mRNA
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Carries amino acids in the cytoplasm to the ribosomes and acts as a translation molecule
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tRNA
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Forms part of the structure of ribosomes RNA
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rRNA
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A single stranded nucleic acid
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RNA
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Process that results in mRNA from DNA
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Transcription
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Process that results in Proteins from mRNA
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Translation
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Enzyme that "unzips" the DNA
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Helicase
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Enzyme that helps keep the DNA uncoiled
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Topoisomerase
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mRNA is made in the ________ direction
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5' --> 3'
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Read from the 5' --> 3' direction
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Sense strand and mRNA
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Read from the 3' --> 5' direction
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Antisense strand
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The template for making mRNA
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Antisense strand
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3 amino acids that bind to the tRNA
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codon
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3 amino acids on the tRNA that bind to the respective amino acids
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anticodon
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Location of DNA
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Nucleus
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Location of mRNA
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Cytoplasm
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Location of Proteins
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Ribosomes
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Structure composed of DNA and associated proteins that carries the hereditary information of the cell or organism
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Chromosome
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One copy of a chromosome formed by DNA replication that is joined by the centromere to another chromatid.
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Chromatid
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An area on the chromosome of super-coiled DNA that holds sister chromatids together.
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Centromere
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A region of the DNA that codes for a specific protein or RNA. Responsible for expression of traits
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Gene
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Alternative forms of the same gene. In a diploid cell each gene will have two of these.
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Allele
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A cell that contains two sets of homologous chromosomes.
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Diploid
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A cell that contains half the number of chromosomes, called gametes
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Haploid
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Responsible for the passing of genetic material from one cell to another through the process of DNA replication
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Chromosomes
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3 ways in which proteins can differ from eachother
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Number of amino acids, sequence of amino acids, type of amino acids
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Bond between two amino acids
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Peptide
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A long chain of amino acids
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Protein
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CH3-(CH2)2-COOH
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Butyric
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CH3-(CH2)14-COOH
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Palmitic
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CH3-(CH2016-COOH
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Stearic
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CH3-(Ch2)7-CH=CH-(Ch2)7-COOH
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Oleic
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Ch3-(CH2)4-CH=Ch-CH2-CH=CH-9CH2)7-COOH
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Linoleic
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CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-(CH2)7-COOH
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Linolenic
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Serve as insulation of axons, form cellular structure such as phospholipid bilayer, provide energy as stored in adipose tissue, form hormones such as steroids
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Lipids
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First 22 pairs of chromosomes
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Autosomes
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Last pair of chromosomes
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Sex chromosomes
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Correspond to genes on the same position on homologous chromosomes
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Alleles
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Long strands of DNA are wrapped around proteins called __________.
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Histones
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Chromosomes from the father pair with the chromosomes from the mother.
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Homologous
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Homologous chromosomes that have alleles that are the same
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Homozygous
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When the corresponding alleles are different
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Heterozygous
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Allele in genetic composition
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Genotype
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Allele in observable composition
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Phenotype
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An extra chromosome 21
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Down's Syndrome
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The major energy source of the body, can be stored in a form that is readily available
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COH
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Glucose + Glucose
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Maltose
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Glucose + Fructose
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Sucrose
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Glucose + Galactose
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Lactose
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Process that creates a disaccharide from 2 monosaccharides
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Dehydration
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Process that creates 2 monosaccharides from a disaccharide
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Hydrolysis
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A straight chain of Glucose
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Starch
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A long chain of Glucose with many branches
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Glycogen
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The v-SNARE's are involved in exocytosis. They are:
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Located on the secretory vesicles and are able to fuse only with t-SNAREs.
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A complete number of 46 chromosomes as found in all human somatic cells
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Diploid Cells
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How to regulate body fluid volumes
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Water intake or water loss
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The average adult is ________ percent water
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50-60
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TBW
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Total Body Water, 40 L
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Increase in body fat leads to _______ body water
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Decrease
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If your blood is hypertonic, you should try to __________ water
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Intake
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ADH
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Anti Diuretic Hormone
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ADH is made in the
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Hypothalamus
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ADH is secreted from the
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Posterior Pituitary
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Increase in ADH leads to ________ in urinary formation
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Decrease
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Increase body water leads to ______ in BP
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Increase
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Lack of ADH
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Diabetes Insipidus
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Releases hormones in the hypothalamus
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Neurosecretory cell
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Percent of TBW that is intercellular
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35-40
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Percent of TBW that is extracellular
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10-20
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3 things that effect TBW
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Age, Gender, and Body Weight
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2 main things that effect TBW
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Intake of water, and Urinary formation
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Diabetes Insipidus leads to
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Dehydration and hypovolemia
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Hypervolemia leads to ________ in ADH
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decrease
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Dissociate in water to form H+ and anions
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Acids
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Dissociate completely in water forming hydrogen ions and anions
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Strong Acids
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Hold on to most of their hydrogen ions; they do not dissociate completely
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Weak Acids
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Dissociate to form OH- and cations when added to water
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Bases
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Formed when acids react with bases
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Salts
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Formula for pH and H ions
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pH= log (1/[H])
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As H+ increases, pH and OH- ____
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decreases and decreases
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As H+ decreases, pH and OH-
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increase and increase
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Formula for bicarbonate
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CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3 <--> HCO3- + H+
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Effect of adding an acid to a buffer
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H is transferred from a strong acid to a weak acid which "hangs on to it's Hs"
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Solutions of 2 or more compounds that prevent marked changes in H+ (pH) when either an acid or base is added to the solution
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Buffer
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Effects of Adding a Base to a Buffer
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OH is transferred from a strong base to a weak base. The weak base "hangs on to its hydroxide ions"
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Control CO2 levels in fluids
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Respiratory System
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Control bicarbonate in body fluids and acid secretion
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Kidneys
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Why CO2 should be considered an acid
|
When it binds to H2O it ultimately leads to the formation of HCO3- + H+ which will lower the pH
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Henderson-Hasselbach equation
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pH= 6.1 + log [HCO3-]/[CO2]
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Over- anesthesia, lung diseases, and damage to respiratory center can all lead to ___________
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Respiratory Acidosis
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Sever diarrhea, diabetes mellitus, high intensity exercise, and kidney failure can all lead to ________
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Metabolic Acidosis
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3 mechanism that regulate pH in the body
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Buffers, Respiratory System, and Kidneys
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3 main types of cells in the blood
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Erythrocytes, Leukocytes, Thrombocytes
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Erythrocytes
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RBC
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Leukocytes
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WBC
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Thrombocytes
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Platelets
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Components of Plasma
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Water, Solids (Proteins, Electrolytes, Urea, Glucose, etc.)
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Average amount of whole blood in the body
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5-6 L
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Normal Hematocrit for males
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42-48%
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Normal hematocrit for females
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38-44%
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Plasma minus coagulation factors
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Serum
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The largest portion of plasma constituents
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Plasma Proteins
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Functions in osmotic pressure regulation
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Albumin
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Work as carrier vehicles in plasma
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Alpha and Beta Globulins
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Antibodies in Plasma
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Gamma Globulins
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Plasma proteins that function in blood coagulation
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Clotting Factors
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Albumin and alpha and beta globulins are formed in the _________
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Liver
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Found in bone marrow, liver, spleen, and lymph nodes
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Gamma Globulins
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Contain no nucleus, cannot multiply, have biconcave discs, do not synthesize proteins
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RBC
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RBC concentration for males
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5.5 million/mm3
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RBC concentration for females
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4.5 million/mm3
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4 things that can cause fluctuations in RBC count
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altitude, muscular exercise, temperature, and age (higher in infants)
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Production of RBC
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Erythropoiesis
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Production of all blood cells
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Hematopoiesis
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Synthesis location of RBC in early embryo
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yolk sac
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Synthesis location of RBC in middle pregnancy
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liver, spleen, and bone marrow
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Synthesis location of RBC in adults
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bone marrow; vertebrae, ribs, and sternum
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What occurs when a normoblast develops into a reticulocyte?
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Loss of nucleus
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The kidney secretes erythropoietin when
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O2 delivery to cells of the kidney decreases
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How many blood cells are made every second?
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2.5 million
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Reversibly binds to O2
|
Hb
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How many Hb are in one RBC?
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200 million
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Heme=
|
Fe + Porphyrin
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In 100 ml of blood there are _______ Hb
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15 g
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1g Hb binds with __________ O2
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1.34 ml
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Hb that is saturated with O2
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Oxyhemoglobin
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Hb that contains CO2
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carbamino hemoglobin
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Hb that contains CO
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Carboxy Hb
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Why CO is so harmful
|
it binds to the same location as O2, not allowing any O2 to be transported
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When porphyrin breaks down it creates a compound called
|
Bilirubin
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Feces and urine owe their normal brown or yellowish color to ________
|
Bilirubin
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Any condition that results in decreased O2 carrying capacity
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Anemia
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Any condition that results in decreased O2 carrying capacity of the blood
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Anemia
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Two main causes of anemia
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Decreased RBC and decreased Hb
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Reason why high levels of bilirubin could be fatal to infants
|
They don't have a blood-brain barrier
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5 types of Anemia
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Hemorrhagic, Aplastic, Nutritional, Pernicious, and Hemolytic
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Anemia from blood loss
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Hemorrhagic
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Anemia from bone marrow destruction
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Aplastic
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Anemia from iron or folic acid deficiency
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Nutritional
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Anemia from decreased intrinsic factor and malabsorption of B12
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Pernicious
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Anemia from RBC destruction
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Hemolytic
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Anemia on the amino acid substitution in Beta chain, on amino acid 6
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Sickle Cell
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Increased RBC count above normal values
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Polycythemia
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Results from a tumor in the bone marrow, thick blood, high BP
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Primary polycythemia
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Results from gradual adaptations to low O2 pressure
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Secondary polycythemia
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Required for mitosis
|
Folic acid
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Circulation number of Leukocytes
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6-12 thousand per mm3
|
|
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Ability to squeeze through capillary walls
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Diapedesis
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Ability to move once they leave the circulation by streaming of the cytoplasm as an amoeba
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Ameboid Motion
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When leukocytes are drawn toward an area of infection
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Chemotaxis
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Defense against acute conditions
|
Neutrophils
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Very active in immune response, contains T and B
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Lymphocytes
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Produce Antibodies
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B-Lymphocytes
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Directly destroy specific target cells
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T-Lymphocytes
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Defense against chronic conditions; involved in phagocytosis
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Monocytes
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Increase in number during allergic reactions
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Eosinophils
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Secrete anticoagulant heparin and histamine
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Basophils
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Decreased production of WBC; caused by radiation, drugs, or chemicals
|
Leukopenia
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A malignant blood disease is which there is a tremendous increase in the number of leukocytes
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Leukemia
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Number of Thrombocytes
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150,000- 500,000/ mm3
|
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Contain a very high number of actin and myosin
|
Platelets
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Abnormally low number of platelets
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Thrombocytopenia
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Stages of Blood Clotting
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Vasoconstriction, Platelet Plug Formation, Formation of Blood Clot
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Pathway involved in clotting factors within the blood
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Intrinsic Pathway
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Pathway involved in clotting factors in the tisse
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Extrinsic Pathways
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Clotting Factor I
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Fibrinogens
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Clotting Factor II
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Prothrombin
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Clotting Factor III
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Tissue Thromboplastin
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Clotting Factor IV
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Calcium
|
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Clotting Factor VIII
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Antihemophilic Globulin
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A person with A blood has type ______ antigens
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A
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A person with B blood has type _____ antigens
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B
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A person with A blood has ______ antibodies
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anti-B
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A person with B blood has _____ antibodies
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anti-A
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A person with O blood has ______ antigens
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Neither A or B
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A person with O blood has ______ antibodies
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Both A and B
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Agglutinins refer only to
|
Antibodies
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Rupture of RBC's
|
Hemolysis
|
|
|
If the mother is Rh+
|
No problem
|
|
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If the mother is Rh - and the Father is Rh-
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No problem
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If the mother is Rh- and the father is Rh+, and the baby is Rh-
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No problem
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|
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If the mother is Rh- and the father is Rh+ and the baby is Rh+
|
Big problem
|
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The nervous system that is composed of gray and white matter
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CNS
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Part of CNS composed of Nerve Cell Bodies
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Gray Matter
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Part of CNS composed of Myelinated Axons
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White Matter
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Cluster of nerve cell bodies within the CNS
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Nucleus
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Nervous tissue outside the brain and spinal cord
|
PNS
|
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|
___ pairs of cranial nerves
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12
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|
___ pairs of spinal nerves
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31
|
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A group of nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system with a common origin and common destination
|
Nerve
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Cluster of nerve cell bodies in the PNS
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Ganglion
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Junction between nerves
|
Synapse
|
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|
Glial cells in the BBB
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astrocytes
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Glial cells that line cavities
|
ependymal
|
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Glial cells that make phagocytes
|
microglia
|
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Glial cells that form myelin
|
oligodendrocytes and schwann cells
|
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5 types of Glial cells
|
astrocytes, ependymal, microglia, oligondendrocytes, and schwann cells
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|
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Involuntary nervous system
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Autonomic
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Voluntary nervous system
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Somatic
|
|
|
Pathology of the brain causing paralysis, lack of coordination, and other dysfunctions of motor and sensory mechanisms
|
Cerebral Palsy
|
|
|
Permanent paralysis of both legs due to injury or disease of the spinal cord
|
Paraplegia
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|
|
Permanent paralysis of arms and legs due to spinal cord injury or certain diseases
|
Quadriplegia
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|
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Enlarged portion of the neuron containing the nucleus and other Nissl bodies
|
Cell body
|
|
|
Cytoplasmic extensions which receive stimuli and conduct impulses to the cell body
|
Dendrite
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|
|
Cylindrical processes that conduct impulses away from the cell body.
|
Axons
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|
|
Myelinate axons in the PNS
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Schwann Cells
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|
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Myelinate axons in the CNS
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Oligodendrocytes
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|
|
Segments or spaces in the myelin sheath
|
Node of Ranvier
|
|
|
______ neurons transmit nerve impulses to the CNS
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Afferent
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|
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______ neurons conduct impulses away from the CNS
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Efferent
|
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______ neurons conduct impulses between sensory and motor neurons
|
Interneurons
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|
_____ neurons have one axon and two or more dendrites
|
Multipolar
|
