Pcb 3712 Unit 1 Learning Objectives

Front 1

What are 3 strategies scientifically proven to be most effective?

Back 1

1) Self explanation while reading

2) Practicing cold retrieval

3) Cramming + spacing

Front 2

Anatomy =

Physiology =

Back 2

= form; what does it look like?

= function; how does it work?

Front 3

What is homeostasis?

Back 3

Internal regulation of the body to remain stable and relatively constant; maintaining metabolic processes.

Front 4

Why is homeostasis necessary in biological systems?

Back 4

Steady maintenance of temperature and water levels, are required for cells to function properly.

Front 5

How is homeostasis accomplished?

Back 5

1) Stimulus

2) Change of internal condition

3) Data to control center

4) Response to stimulus

5) Negative feedback and return to normal

Front 6

Define acute response.

Back 6

Temporary, immediate response

• Movement

• Inflammation

• Cell stress response

• Adjust ventilation / heart rate

Front 7

Define Acclimatization.

Back 7

Reversible physiological adjustment over several days (within a lifetime, not genetic/hereditary)

• Adjust metabolic rate

• Adjust lung capacity

• Tanning

• Adjust makeup of cell membrane

• Can maintain a species long enough for genetic adaptation to occur.

Front 8

Define Adaptation.

Back 8

Permanent physiological adjustments over evolutionary time

•Can only occur between generations

•Present in DNA sequence (i.e. genetic and thus hereditary)

Front 9

Give an example of physiological adaptation.

Back 9

Arctic fox and countercurrent heat exchange

Front 10

Give some examples of acclimatization and adaptation sharing mechanisms.

Back 10

High performance animals (e.g. hummingbirds), cold adapted fishes (e.g. Antarctic borks), and marathon runners all have very high volumes of mitochondria in their muscle cells.

Front 11

Define metabolism.

Back 11

Chemical processes occurring within a living cell or organism that are necessary for the maintenance of life.

Front 12

Define metabolic rate.

Back 12

A measure of how fast necessary chemical reactions occur in a cell or organism – often estimated from rate of O2intake.

Front 13

Define cofactor.

Back 13

• Inorganic and organic chemicals that assist enzymes during the catalysis of reactions

• Mostly metal ions or coenzymes

Front 14

Define allosteric regulation.

Back 14

Involves an inhibitor and an activator

regulation of a protein by binding an effector molecule (activator or inhibitor) at a site other than the protein's active site.

Front 15

Define metabolic flux.

Back 15

• The overall rate of reaction in a pathway

• Rate of the slowest reaction (most allosteric)

Front 16

Describe the role of the nucleus in animal cell homeostasis.

Back 16

Contains genetic material (DNA)

Front 17

Describe the role of the mitochondria in animal cell homeostasis.

Back 17

• Use electrical and chemical gradients across the inner membrane for energy to

perform ATP synthesis (oxidative phosphorylation)

• ATP synthase is the tool used to do this

Front 18

Describe the role of the endoplasmic reticulum in animal cell homeostasis.

Back 18

Protein and lipid synthesis

Front 19

Describe the role of the golgi apparatus in animal cell homeostasis.

Back 19

Handles modification, sorting, and packaging of ER products

Front 20

Describe the role of the plasma membrane in animal cell homeostasis.

Back 20

• Separates the internal and external environment of a cell

• Facilitates transport, signal transduction and enzyme function

Front 21

Describe the role of the enzymes in animal cell homeostasis.

Back 21

• Catalyze reactions; lower the activation energy for reactions to occur

• Reliant on shape; changing shape probably changes function

Front 22

How can changes in transcription lead to phenotypic variation without changes in DNA sequence?

Back 22

• Gene expression is how DNA makes things happen and can be regulated by the environment.

• Changes in gene expression cause phenotypic variation.

Front 23

Explain possible fates of chemical energy consume by an animal.

Back 23

1) Biosynthesis: growth; loss of chemical energy

2) Maintenance:

3) Generation of external work: loss of mechanical energy

4) Loss of heat: inefficient; degradation of internal work

Front 24

Explain the mechanism by which energy stored in ATP can be used to generate physiological activity.

Back 24

Phosphorylation: ATP donates a phosphorus to enzyme to turn it on or off

Front 25

Describe four ways by which enzyme activity is regulated.

Back 25

• Determine how much enzyme is present

1) Protein synthesis rates

2) Protein degradation (how much enzyme)

• Determine velocity of enzyme activity

3) Substrate concentration (how fast enzyme works)

4) Allosteric modulators

Front 26

Describe the meaning of the Michealis-Menton constant, Km.

Back 26

• Km = 1/2Vmax

• High Km: a lot of substrate needed to saturate the enzyme; low affinity for substrate

• Low Km: small amount of substrate needed to saturate the enzyme; a high affinity for substrate

Front 27

Describe the maximal velocity of an enzyme, Vmax.

Back 27

• Velocity when all enzymes present are doing their job

• Reflects how fast the enzyme can catalyze the reaction

Front 28

Describe the half-saturation constant, K.

Back 28

• Species with lower K will grow faster with lower nutrient concentrations with same Vmax as the higher K.

• Species with higher K will grow faster with lower nutrient concentrations if Vmax is much higher.

Front 29

Describe metabolic flux.

Back 29

The overall rate of reaction in a pathway

Front 30

What are "omics"?

Back 30

Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics.

Front 31

Describe the gene knockout approach.

Back 31

• The ultimate bottom-up approach

• Method of finding out what a specific gene does

• Knocking out a gene to see what happens to the organism

Front 32

What is the candidate gene approach?

Back 32

• Any gene thought likely to cause something

• Focuses on associations between genetic variation within pre-specified genes of interest

• The gene may be a candidate because it is located in a particular chromosome region suspected of being involved

Front 33

What is hemoglobin?

Back 33

Protein molecule in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.

Front 34

What is myoglobin?

Back 34

Iron and oxygen-binding protein found in the muscle and heart tissue of almost all mammals.

Front 35

Describe the anti-freeze protein.

Back 35

• Don't stop growth of ice crystals, but limit the growth to manageable sizes

• Produced as a specialized adaptation by certain fish, insects, plants and bacteria to keep from freezing

Front 36

Describe genomics and provide an example.

Back 36

• The study of the entire genome (i.e. all the genes)

• Discovering gene function through gene sequence

Front 37

Describe transcriptomics and provide an example.

Back 37

• The study of the entire populations of mRNA (transcription)

•Example: DNA microarray, bacterial cloning (E.coli)

Front 38

Describe proteomics and provide an example.

Back 38

• The study of the entire proteome (i.e. a cell’s entire protein pool)

• Measuring the levels of all proteins in a tissue, which is in theory,one step closer to the phenotype

• Example: 2D protein gel electrophoresis

Front 39

Describe metabolomics and provide an example.

Back 39

• The study of the entire metabolome (i.e. a cell’s entire pool of metabolites – molecules not coded in genes)

• Example: nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, NMR (detects different compounds via their unique resonance signatures)

Front 40

Describe the top-down approach.

Back 40

1) Animal function: what tissue functions account for animal function?

2) Tissue function: what proteins account for tissue function?

3) Tissue-specific proteins: What genes and gene function account for tissue proteins?

4) Genes

Front 41

Describe the bottom-up approach.

Back 41

1) Genes: knowing the genes present and being expressed, what proteins are likely present?

2) Tissue-specific proteins: knowing the proteins in a tissue, how is it likely to function?

3) Tissue function: knowing tissue function, in what ways is animal function likely to be affected?

• Example: gene knockout

Front 42

What is phenotypic plasticity?

Back 42

• The capacity for an individual of fixed genotype to exhibit two or more genetically controlled phenotypes.

• Plasticity during development often leads to irreversible phenotypes

• Example: Tree anoles with shorter legs, ground anoles with longer legs

Front 43

What is polyphenic development?

Back 43

• When multiple, discrete phenotypes can arise from a single genotype as a result of environmental forcing.

• Example: locusts live alone but swarm together in presence of famine

Front 44

Define epigenetics.

Back 44

• Refers to heritable changes in transcriptional states or gene expression due to modification of DNA (switching genes on or off) but no change in gene sequence.

• Allows the transmission of environmentally induced characters

Front 45

What is epigenetic marking?

Back 45

• Using methylation or covalent modification of histone proteins

• Marks silence certain gene sequences and activate others so that nascent cells can differentiate

Front 46

Define diffusion.

Back 46

• Random and kinetic passive transport

• More --> less: down concentration gradient

• Occurs at a slower rate the longer the distance (thicker membrane)

• Influenced by permeability but not by saturation

Front 47

Define osmosis.

Back 47

Water movement down its own gradient

Front 48

Define 1) active transport and 2) secondary active transport.

Back 48

1) Transport against concentration gradient by a transporter protein (consumes ATP)

• Example: Na-K-ATPase

2) One transporter protein pumps in, the other pumps out

• Example: Na-glucose

Front 49

Define facilitated diffusion

Back 49

• Polar molecules require help from transporter proteins

• Can be sturated

Front 50

What is osmolarity (osmonic pressure)?

Back 50

Total conectration of molecules of solute present

Front 51

Define hyperosmotic.

Back 51

• More solute/less water outside of cell

• Water moves outward

• Cell shrinks

Front 52

Define hypoosmotic.

Back 52

• Less solute/more water outside of cell

• Water moves inward

• Cell expands

Front 53

What is passive transport?

Back 53

• Simple diffusion down concentration gradient

• Non-polar molecules and ion channels

• Example: glucose through a cell membrane

Front 54

Define electrochemical equilibrium.

Back 54

• Na+ is far from electrochemical equilibrium, as both a concentration and electrical gradient point Na+ into the cell

• Cl- and K+ are near electrochemical equilibrium because the chemical gradient of both are partly balanced by the electrical gradient

• Inside of cell is negative, outside positive

Front 55

Define cell signaling.

Back 55

Cell signals are initiated by a ligands binding specifically and non-covalently to receptor proteins, usually located on the cell surface.

Front 56

List and describe the four types of receptor molecules.

Back 56

1) Ligand-gated channel: ligands bind and open channel

2) G-protein coupled receptor: ligand binds and activates g-protein which activates another active site

3) Enzyme-enzyme linked: ligand binds and activates another active site

4) Intracellular receptor: extracellular ligand binds to intracellular receptor

Front 57

Describe how signal amplification occurs during transduction.

Back 57

1) 1st kinase is activated by one of various chemical mechanisms and catalyzes phosphorylation of kinase 2

2) 2nd kinase is activated by phosphorylation and catalyzes phosphorylation of kinase 3

3) Target enzyme activated by phosphorylation and catalyzes a critical metabolic process

Front 58

Why do animals eat?

Back 58

• To obtain raw material for biosynthesis

• For energy

• To obtain cofactors for enzyme reactions

• Bodies do not make all necessary nutrients

Front 59

Proteins

Back 59

• Give structure to cells

• Enzymatic function

• Can be used for fuel

• Some cannot be made by the body

• Repair tissue and fight infection

Front 60

Vitamins

Back 60

• Organic substances that assist enzymes

• Cannot be used for fuel

Front 61

Minerals

Back 61

• Inorganic substances that assist enzymes

• Give structure to bones, teeth and nails

• Cannot be used for fuel

Front 62

Carbs

Back 62

• Used for energy storage

• Simple carbs contain one or two sugars, while complex carbs are made of three or more linked sugars

Front 63

Lipids

Back 63

• Monounsaturated (fish oil), polyunsaturated (vegetable fat), saturated (animal fat) and trans fats (man made)

• Used for energy storage

Front 64

What type of damage can variation in tissue temperature cause?

Back 64

Denaturation of proteins