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182 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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tissues
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group of cells performing a common function
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four types of tissues
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epithelial
connective nervous muscle |
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Epithelial Tissue
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functions as a covering of either the outside or inside - the skin or lining of the digestive tract
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Nervous Tissue
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carries out signal transmission
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Muscle Tissue
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carries out movement
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Axial Skeleton
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skull, vertebral column, and rib cage
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Movement in different directions is achieved by _____ _____ (2 words)
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opposing muscles
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The process of muscle contraction requires ______
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Calcium
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Muscles are made of of bundles of _____ _____
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muscle fibers
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Muscle fibers are made up of bundles of _____
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myofibrils
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Myofibrils are composed of _____ and _____
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actin and myosin
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Two basic activities carried out by the nervous system
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(1) sensory functions
(2) controlling movement |
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Myelin
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prevents signal loss in an axon
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Synapse
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The place where signal transmission occurs - a junction between 2 neurons or between a neuron and a muscle
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Neurotransmitters
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chemicals stored in the synapse and then released to send a signal to the next cell
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Resting Membrane Potential
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-70 millivolts
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Autonomic Nervous System
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controls involuntary functions - heart beat, digestion, breathing; usually involves smooth and cardiac muscle
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2 subdivisions of Autonomic Nervous system
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Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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usuallyaccelerates things (heart beat)
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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usually slows things down
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Reflexes
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certain movements involve sensory information which is NOT processed by the brain - for the reason of SPEED - processing takes place in spinal cord
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Cerebrum
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processing sensory information and memory
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Cerebellum
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receives information from muscles and sensory receptors - controls balance and coordinated movement
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Brain Stem
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controls autonomic functions such as breathing and heart beat
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Light is detected by rods and cones in the _____
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retina
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The signal from the eye is sent to the brain via the _____ _____
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Optic Nerve
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Middle Ear
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Vibrations picked up by eardrum get passed through small series of bones
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Small bones of the middle ear
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incus, malleus, and stapes
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Tympanic Membrane
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eardrum
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Eustachian Tube or Auditory Tube
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connects middle ear to the pharynx
function is to equalize pressure |
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Inner Ear
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made up of cochlea and 3 semicircular canals
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Cochlea
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Processes sound and sends information down the auditory nerve
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Semicircular canals
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balance, aka dynamic equilibrium
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Blood (function of)
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transports wastes, nutrients, and oxygen
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Plasma
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fluid portion of blood
contains water, proteins, and electrolytes |
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Erythrocytes
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Red blood cells - carry oxygen via the transport protein HEMOGLOBIN
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Old RBCs are removed in the _____ and _____
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liver and spleen
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Leukocytes
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White blood cells - function in the immune system to protect the body against disease
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Platelets
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involved in blood clotting
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Blood Circulation (general flow)
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heart > artery > arteriole > capillary > venule > vein > back to heart
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What are the thinnest and most numerous blood vessels?
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capillaries
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What are the largest blood vessels? They also have muscle wall.
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arteries
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Pulmonary Circulation
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Takes blood from the heart to the lungs and back
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Systematic Circulation
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Takes blood from the heart to the body and back
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Hormones
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Chemical messengers used in the endocrine systems
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2 types of hormones
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(1) steroidal - estrogen, testosterone, cortisol, aldosterone
(2) non-steroidal |
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Amylase
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enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch
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Protease
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enzymes that break down protein - present in saliva and gastric secretions
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Location where peristalsis first takes place
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esophagus
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Pyloric Sphincter
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separates the stomach from the duodenum (aka duodenal sphincter)
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Liver (importance)
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metabolism
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Liver (involvement)
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production and break down of proteins, produces and breaks down glycogen
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2 Gram positive cocci bacteria that cause a wide variety of infections in the skin, respiratory tract, and elsewhere
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Staphylococcus and Streptococcus
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Enteric/Coliform Bacteria
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cause a variety of infections of the GI tract and serve as an indicator of pollution since they are only found in the gut or feces
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Mycobacterium
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outer layer of wax/lipid and causes TB and leprosy
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Nasty Gram-Positive Rod
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Clostridium
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Clostridium
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tetanus, botulism, and gas gangrene
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Two nasty Spirochetes
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Borrelia and Treponema
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Borrelia
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cause of Lyme disease
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Treponema
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cause of STD syphillis
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Protozoans (characteristics)
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eukaryotic, single-celled, very complex, usually found in water or moist areas
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What is the tough survival stage which is often the stage that transmits disease
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cyst
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When a protozoans is not in the "cyst" stage, they are in _____
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trophozite
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Protozoan diseases of the intestines
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Giardia, cryptosporidium, and amebiasis
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Trypanisoma
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protozoan disease known as sleeping sickness, transmitted by tse tse fly
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Fungi - major role in nature
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decompose
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decomposer
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grow on, break down, and absorb nutrients from dead material
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Spores
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contained in specialized structure known as fruiting body; one of most common causes of respiratory allergies (hay fever and asthma)
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Molds
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multicellular, composed of strands (HYPHAE) of cells all joined into one mass; EXAMPLES penicillin and mushrooms
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fruiting body of mushroom
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visible part of mushroom
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Parasitism
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one organism benefits and the other is harmed
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Commensalism
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helps one and does not effect the other
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Mutualism
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both organisms benefit
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Competition
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both organisms are effected negatively
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Edward Jenner
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first European to use the vaccine (smallpox)
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Robert Hooke
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known as "the father of microscopy", and for coining the term "cell" to describe the basic unit of life.
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Eli Metchnikoff
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father of natural immunology, research with WBCs and macrophages
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Alexander Fleming
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Discovery of the antibiotic, Penicillin
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Myopia
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Nearsightedness is when the eyes focus incorrectly, making distant
objects appear blurred |
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conjuctivitis
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swelling (inflammation) or infection of the membrane lining the eyelids (conjunctiva).
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amblyopia
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"lazy eye," is the loss of one eye's ability to see details. It is the most common cause of vision problems in children.
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4 stages of mitosis
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Prophase
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase |
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Mesoderm
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It differentiates to gives rise to a number of tissues and structures including bone, muscle, RBCs, connective tissue, and the middle layer of the skin; also reproductive organs
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Ectoderm
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differentiates to form the nervous system, and the epidermis
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Endoderm
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lining of gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, and endocrine glands and organs
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nondisjunction
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the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly during cell division
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translocation
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a chromosome abnormality caused by rearrangement of parts between nonhomologous chromosomes
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inversion
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a chromosome rearrangement in which a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end. An inversion occurs when a single chromosome undergoes breakage and rearrangement within itself.
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Aneuploidy
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an abnormal number of chromosomes, and is a type of chromosome abnormality (one copy of chromosome) Turner's Syndrome
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Achondroplasia
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type of autosomal dominant genetic disorder that is a common cause of dwarfism.
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Secretion
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The release of a substance for use by the organism producing it
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Changes seen in various parts of the brain during vertebrate evolution
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midbrain & hindbrain smaller
forebrain larger |
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X-Linked disorders
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(Most likely to show up in males)
Hemophilia Color Blindness |
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Autosomal Recessive Disorders
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Albinism
Sickle Cell Anemia PKU Cystic Fibrosis |
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Autosomal Dominant Disorders
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Huntington's Disease
Polydactyly |
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zoonoses
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pathogenic microbes that come from animals
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nosocomial
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pathogenic microbes that come from hospital infections
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Normal Flora
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microbes that live in and on certain areas of the human bod normally - lactobacillus
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Leukocytes - WBCs (types)
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neutrophils
eosinophils basophils lymphocytes monocytes |
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What does plasma contain?
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antibodies
complement (triggers inflammation) |
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neutrophils
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the most abundant cell type is phagocytic - protect mainly against bacteria
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eosinophils
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contain toxic granules - protect against parasites
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basophils
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contain granules full of HISTAMINE that cause inflammatin
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lymphocytes
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T & B cells are involved in specific immunity and N/K cells are involved in nonspecific immunity
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monocytes
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can preform phagocytosis or kill infected cells - they leave the bloodstream and become macrophages or dendritic cells
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The _____ is the site where t-cells mature
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Thymus
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_____ _____ protect an area or region of tissue.
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Lymph Nodes
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The _____ protects the bloodstream and involved in removing old RBCs
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spleen
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_____ _____ is the site where all blood cells are made
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bone marrow
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Which cells carry out the cell-mediated response?
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T-cells
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_____ cells produce cytokines that mainly protect against viral, fungal, and parasitic infections
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T-cells
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Types of cytokines
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Helper T cells
Suppressor T cells Cytotoxic T cells |
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Helper T cells
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activate other t cells, b cells, macrophages, and NK cells
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Suppressor T cells
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shut down other cells
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Cytotoxic T cells
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kill virus-infected or cancer cells by binding to them and exposing them to toxins and perforins
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_____ cells produce antibodies (immunoglobins)
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B cells
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Function of ANTIBODY
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bind to antigens, protect against bacterial and viral infections
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5 Classes of Antibodies
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IgA
IgG IgD IgE IgM (MADGE) |
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IgM
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largest immunoglobin found mainly in the bloodstream
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IgA
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protects mucous membranes - therefore, GI tract and respiratory tract
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IgD
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found on the surface of B cells
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IgG
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most common immunoglobin in serum, protects you against toxins, and is the one that can cross the placenta (maternal antibody)
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IgE
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surface of mast cells and basophils and protects against parasitic infections; also involved with allergies
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Which enzyme is primarily responsible for DNA replication?
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DNA polymerase
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DNA polymerase
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These enzymes catalyze synthesis of complementary strands of DNA from parent strands, but only in the 5'-3' direction.
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RNA Polymerase
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Catalyzes the formation of RNA primers in the leading strand. This is the same polymerase that catalyzes the formation of RNA transcripts.
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DNA Helicase
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separates the two strands
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DNA Ligase
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Catalyzes the joining together of Okazaki fragments.
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Semidiscontinuous
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the "leading strand" is synthesized in the 5'-3' direction as a single, continuous strand, using the parent 3'-5' strand as its template. The "lagging strand", which uses the parental 5'-3' strand as its template, is synthesized discontinuously, but also in the 5'-3' direction. These fragments that make up the lagging strand are called "Okazaki fragments".
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Transcription
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Transcription is the transfer of genetic information from DNA to RNA, using DNA as a template.
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Transcription
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It is like DNA replication in that a DNA strand is used to synthesize a strand of mRNA.
Only one strand of DNA is copied. A single gene may be transcribed thousands of times. After transcription, the DNA strands rejoin. |
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Transcription (location)
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Transcription and mRNA processing occur in the nucleus.
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Translation
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Translation is the process where ribosomes synthesize proteins using the mature mRNA transcript produced during transcription.
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Translation (location)
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Ribosome
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rRNA
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part of the building blocks of ribosomes, participates in protein synthesis.
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tRNA
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smallest type RNA
function as adapters that help translate the nucleotide sequences in mRNA into amino acid sequences, so specific proteins can be constructed. |
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mRNA
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the intermediates between DNA and protein. These mRNA molecules bring the genetic code from the DNA, which is in the nucleus, to ribosomes, which are in the cytoplasm. They attach to the ribosomes and determine the order in which amino acids are assembled to synthesize a protein. Of the three types of RNA required for translation, mRNA molecules have the simplest structure.
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_____ refers to a permanent change in the structure of the DNA which is passed on to the offspringof the effected cell
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Mutation
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Sources of mutations
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radiation
chemicals viruses NOT heat |
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Types of Mutations
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Missense
Nonsense Frame-Shift (insertion or deletion) |
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Missense
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one single base is changed which leads to production of a different AA - does not affect those downstream
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Nonsense
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a single base is changed to that of a stop codon which terminates synthesis
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Frame-shift
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causes a major change by either an insertion or deletion - throws off all downstream AA
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Recombination
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refers to the transfer of genetic information from one organism to another
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Transformation
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DNA from a dead bacteria which has broken apart is taken up through the cell wall of the recipient bacteria and integrated into its own DNA
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Conjugation
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the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through direct cell to cell contact; involves exchange of a PLASMID; bacteria are joined by a SEX PILUS
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Transduction
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the process by which DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus; common tool used by molecular biologists to stably introduce a foreign gene into a host cell's genome.
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Chromosomal crossover
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recombination between the paired chromosomes inherited from each of one's parents, generally occurring during meiosis
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Transposons
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"jumping genes" genetic elements that move from one place to another WITHIN a chromosome
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Intron
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DNA region within a gene that is not translated into protein; removed by splicing
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What do plasma cells produce?
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antibodies
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NK cells
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Natural killer cells that are NOT T or B cells; play a major role in the rejection of tumors and cells infected by viruses; major role in innate immune system
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innate immune system
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cells and mechanisms that defend the host from infection by other organisms, in a non-specific manner; provide immediate defense against infection, and are found in all classes of plant and animal life.
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Stages of Interphase during mitosis
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G1, S, G2
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The _____ phase is where chromosomes replicate
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S
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G1 Stage
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Growth
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G2 Stage
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Growth and preparation for division
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Apoptosis (importance)
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development
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Nuclear Division
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Cytoplasmic Division
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Apoptosis
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Programmed cell death; results in cell shrinkage and fragmentation. Such shrinkage and fragmentation allow the cells to be phagocytosed and their components reused without releasing potentially harmful intracellular substances such as hydrolytic enzymes into the surrounding tissue.
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Necrosis
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premature death of cells and living tissue. It is caused by external factors, such as infection, toxins or trauma; detrimental to cell and can be fatal
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Prophase
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Centrosomes move to opposite poles
Spindle microtubules form |
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Metaphase
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All chromosomes line up at equator
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Anaphase
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Sister chromatids pulled apart
Chromatids are now daughter chromosomes Daughter chromosomes now move towards opposite poles |
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Telophase
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Chromosomes de-condense
Two nuclear envelopes form |
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Cytokinesis
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Occurs late anaphase to end of telophase
(animals) - cleavages (plants) - cell plate formation |
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NAD+ (function)
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Transfer of electrons between reactions
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Malpighian tubules
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type of excretory and osmoregulatory system found in some Insects and Myriapoda, arachnids and tardigrades.
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Malpighian tubules (human similarity)
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kidneys
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Gymnosperms
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leaves are needlelike and evergreen, and it produces cones
Their female sex germs reside in ovules, as in regular flowers, but the ovules themselves are not enclosed within the flower's ovaries, as they are among flowering plants. |
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Angiosperms
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Characteristic feature is the flower; The function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds
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Conifers
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bear cones and needles
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MHC class I molecules
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display to the environment, specifically cytotoxic T cells, the proteins that are being produced within the cell; binds to CD8
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Where are MHC class I molecules found?
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found on every nucleated cell of the body (and thus not on red blood cells)
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MHC class II molecules
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ound only on a few specialized cell types, including macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells
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What does MHC Class II molecules interact with?
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Class II molecules interact exclusively with CD4+ ("helper") T cells
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Competitive exclusion principle
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a proposition which states that two species competing for the same resources cannot stably coexist if other ecological factors are constant. One of the two competitors will always overcome the other, leading to either the extinction of this competitor or an evolutionary or behavioral shift towards a different ecological niche.
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Gause's Law
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Competitive exclusion principle
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Founder Effect
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the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population.
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Hardy-Weinberg principle
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both allele and genotype frequencies in a population remain constant—that is, they are in equilibrium—from generation to generation unless specific disturbing influences are introduced; impossible in nature
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Pseudopodia
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temporary projections that extend and contract by the reversible assembly of actin subunits into microfilaments.
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Where are pseudopodia found?
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amoebas
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