Pathophysiology

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pathology

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the study of disease and its causes

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pathophysiology

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the physiology of disordered function

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atrophy

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a decrease in cell size resulting from a decreased workload

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hypertrophy

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an increase in cell size resulting from an increased workload

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dilation

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enlargement,. In reference to the heart, an abnormal enlargement rusulting from pathology

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hyperplasia

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an increase in the number of cells resulting from cell division caused by an increased workload

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mitosis

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cell division with division of the nucleus; each daughter cell contains the same number of chromosomes as the mother cell. Mitosis is the process by which the body grows.

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metaplasia

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replacement of one type of cell by another type of cell that is not normal for that tissue

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dysplasis

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a change in cell size, shape, or appearance caused by an external stressor

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hypoxia

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oxygen deficiency

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ischemia

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a blockage in the delivery of oxygenated blood to the cells

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pathogen

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a microorganism capable of producing infection or disease

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anabolism

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the constructive phase of metabolism in which cells convert nonliving substances into living cytoplasm

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catabolism

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the destructive phase of metabolism in which cells break down complex substances into simpler substances with release of energy

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cellular swelling

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swelling of a cell caused by injury to or change in permeability of the cell membrane with resulting inability to maintain stable intra- and extracellular fluid and electrolyte levels

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fatty change

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a result of cellular injury and swelling in which lipids (fat vesicles) invade the area of injury; occurs most commonly in the liver

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apoptosis

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response in which an injured cell releases enzymes that engulf and destroy itself; one way the body rids itself of damaged and dead cells

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necrosis

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cell death; a pathological cell change. Four types of necrotic cell change are coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, and fatty. Gangrenous necrosis refers to tissue death over a wide area

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edema

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excess fluid in the interstitial space

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plasma

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the liquid part of the blood

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erythrocytes

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red blood cells, which contain hemoglobin, which transports oxygen to the cells

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leukocytes

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white blood cells, which play a key role in the immune system and inflammatory (infection-fighting) responses.

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thrombocytes

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platelets, which are important in blood clotting

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hemoglobin

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an iron-based compound that binds with oxygen and transports it to the cells

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hematocrit

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the percentage of the blood occupied by erythrocytes

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hemoglobin-based oxygen-carrying solutions (HBOCs)

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intravenous fluids with the ability to transport oxygen

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colloids

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substances, such as proteins or starches, consisting of large molecules or molecule aggregates that disperse evenly within a liquid without forming a true solution

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albumin

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a protein commonly present in plant and animal tissues. In the blood, albumin works to maintain blood volume and blood pressure and provides colloid osmotic pressure, which prevents plasma loss from the capillaries

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crystalloids

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substances capable of crystallization. In solution, unlike colloids, they can diffuse through a membrane, such as a capillary wall.

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tonicity

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solute concentration or osmotic pressue relative to the blood plasma or body cells

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respiratory acidosis

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acidity caused by abnormal retention of carbon dioxide resulting from impaired ventilation

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respiratory alkalosis

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alkalinity caused by excessive elimination of carbon dioxide resulting from increased respirations

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metabolic acidosis

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acidity caused by an increase in acid, often because of increased production of acids during metabolism or from causes such as vomitting, diarrhea, diabetes, or medication

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metabolic alkalosis

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alkalinity caused by an increase in plasma bicarbonate resulting from causes including diuresis, vomitting, or ingestion of too much sodium bicarbonate

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diuretic

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an agent that increases urine secretion and elimination of body water

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hypoperfusion

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inadequate perfusion of the body tissues, resulting in an inadequate supply of oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues. Also called shock

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aerobic metabolism

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the second stage of metabolism, requiring the presence of oxygen, in which the breakdown of glucose yields a high amount of energy

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anaerobic metabolism

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the first stage of metabolis, which does not require oxygen, in which the breakdown of glucose produces pyruvic acid and yields very little energy

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compensated shock

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early stage of shock during which the body's compensatory mechanisms are able to maintain normal perfusion

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decompensated shock (progressive shock)

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advances stages of shock when the body's compensatory mechanisms are no longer able to maintain normal perfusion

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irreversible shock

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shock that has progressed so far that no medical intervention can reverse the condition and death is inevitable

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cardiogenic shock

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shock caused by insufficient cardiac output; the inability of the heart to pump enough blood to perfuse all parts of the body

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hypovolemic shock

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shock caused by a loss of intravascular fluid volume

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osmotic diuresis

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greatly increased urination and dehydration due to high levels of glucose that cannot be reabsorbed into the blood from the kidney tubules, causing a loss of water into the urine

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neurogenic shock

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shock resulting from brain or spinal cord injury that causes an interruption of nerve impluses to the arteries with loss of arterial tone, dilation, and relative hypovolemia

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anaphylaxis

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a life-threatening allergic reaction

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septic shock

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shock that develops as the result of infection carried by the bloodstream, eventually causing dysfunction of multiple organ systems

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multiple organ death syndrome (MODS)

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progressive impairment of two or more organ systems resulting from an uncontrolled inflammatory respsonse to a severe illness or injury

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bacteria

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single-celled organisms with a cell membrane and cytoplasm but no organized nucleus. They bind to the cells of a host organism to obtain food and support

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exotoxins

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toxic (poisonous) substances secreted by bacterial cells during their growth

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endotoxins

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molecules in the walls of certain gram-negative bacteria that are released when the bacterium dies or is destroyed, causing toxic effiects on the host body

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septicemia

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the systemic spread of toxins through the blood stream.

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virus

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an organism much smaller than a bacterium, visible only under an electron microscope. invade and live inside the cells of the organisms they infect

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antigen

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a marker on the surface of a cell that identifies it as self or non-self

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antibody

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a substance produced by B lymphocytes in response to the presence of a foreign antigen that will combine with and control or destroy the antigen, thus preventing infection

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immune response

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the body's reactions that inactivate or eliminate foreign antigens

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immunity

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a long-term condition of protection from infection or disease

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natural immunity

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inborn protection against infection or disease

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acquired immunity

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protection from infection or disease that in (1) developed by the body after exposure to an antigen or (2) transferred to the person from an outside source

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lymphocyte

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a type of leukocyte, or white blood cell, that attacks foreign substances as part of the body's immune response

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B lymphocyte

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white blood cells that, in response to the presence of an antigen, produce antibodies that attack the antigen, develop a memory for the antigen, and confer long-term immunity to the antigen

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humoral immunity

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the long-term immunity to an antigen provided by antibodies produced by B lymphocytes

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T lymphocytes

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white blood cells that do not produce antibodies but, instead, attack antigens directly

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cell-mediated immunity

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the short-term immunity to an antigen provided by T lymphocytes, which directly attack the antigen but do not produce antibodies or memory for the antigen

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immunogens

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antigens that are able to trigger an immune response

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Rh blood group

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a group of antigens discovered on the red blood cells of rhesus monkeys that is also present to some extent in humans

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Rh factor

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an antigen in the Rh blood group that is also known as antigen D. About 85% have the Rh factor (positive) while about 15% do not (negative). Rh positive and Rh negative blood are incompatible; that is, a servere immune response is possible if they are mixed

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ABO blood groups

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four blood groups formed by the presence or absence of two antigens known as A and B.

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inflammation

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the body's response to cellular injury; also called the inflammatory response. In contrast to the immune response, inflammation develops swiftly, is nonspecific (attacks all unwanted substances in the same way), and is temporary, leading to healing.

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mast cells

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large cells, resembling bags of granules, that reside near blood vessels. When stimulated by injury, chemicals, or allergic responses, they activate the inflammatory response by degranulation aand synthesis

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degranulation

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the emptying of granules from the interior of a mast cell into the extracellular environment

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histamine

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a substance released during the degranulation of mast cells and also released by basophils that, through constriction and dilation of blood vessels, increases blood flow to the injury site and also increases the permeability of vessel walls

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serotonin

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a substance released by platelets that, through constriction and dilation of blood vessels, affects blood flow to an injured or affected site

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chemotactic factors

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chemicals that attract white cells to the site of inflammation a process called chemotaxis

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leukotrienes

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substances synthesized by mast cells during inflammatory response that cause vasodilation, vascular permeability, and chemotaxis

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prostaglandins

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substances synthesized by mast cells during inflammatory response that cause vasodilation, vascular permeability, and chemotaxis and also cause pain.

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fibroblasts

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cells that secrete collagen, a critical factor in wound healing

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pus

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a liquid mixture of dead cells, bits of dead tissue, and tissue fluid that may accumulate in inflamed tissues

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granuloma

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a tumor or growth that forms when foreign bodies that connot be destroyed by macrophages are surrounded and walled off

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resolution

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the complete healing of a wound and return of tissues to their normal structure and function; the ending of inflammation with no scar formation

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repair

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healing of a wound with scar formation

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hypersensitivity

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an exaggerated and harmful immune response; an umbrella term for allergy, autoimmunity, and isoimmunity

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allergy

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exaggerated immune response to an environmental antigen

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autoimmunity

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an immune response to self-antigens, which the body normally tolerates

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isoimmunity

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an immune response to antigens from another member of the same species; for example Rh reactions

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immediate hypersensitivity reaction

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a swiftly occuring secondary hypersensitivity reaction. Usually more severe than delayed reactions

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delayed hypersensitivity reaction

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a hypersensitivity reaction that takes place after the elapse of some time following reexposure to an antigen

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AIDS

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a group of signs, symptoms, and disorders that often develop as a consequence of HIV infection

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HIV

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a virus that breaks down the immune defenses, making the body vulnerable to a variety of infections and disorders

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stressor

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the stimulus or cause of stress

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general adaption syndrome (GAS)

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a sequence of stress response stages: stage I, alarm; stage II, resistance or adaptation; stage III, exhaustion

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physiological stress

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a chemical or physical disturbance in the cells or tissue fluid produced by a change in the external environment or within the body

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dynamic steady state

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homeostasis; the tendency of the body to maintain a net constant composition although the components of the body's internal environment are always changing

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turnover

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the continual syntesis and breakdown of body substances that results in the dynamic steady state

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cortisol

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a steroid hormone released by the adrenal cortex that regulates the metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, sodium, potassium, and proteins and also has antiinflammatory effect