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435 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is etiology?
cause of disease (microorganism, physical agents, chemicals, etc)
What is disease?
literally means discomfort, any departure from normal whether clinically apparent or not
What are symptoms vs. clinical signs?
symptoms are felt by patient, clinical signs are perceptible to the senses of an observer
What is a syndrome?
a group of concurrent signs and symptoms of disease
What are lesions?
changes in organs or tissues seen as a result of disease
What are gross lesions?
can be seen without a microscope
What are microscopic lesions?
can be seen only under light microscope
What is pathogenesis?
step by step process of development of lesion/disease
What is a sequel?
outcome/consequence of disease
What is prognosis?
statement of expected outcome (good, guarded, poor, grave)
WHat is genetically determined disease?
due to some abnormality of base sequence in DNA of fertilized ovum and resulting cells. Inherited but not necessarily evident at birth, could manifest later in life
What is acquired disease?
occurs after birth as a result of exposure to environmental factors
Do all congenital defects have clearly established causes? What could the causes be?
not all but could be environmental, nutritional or genetic factors
What causes oxygen deprivation?
ischemia, NO O2
What is hypoxia and what causes it?
inadequate oxygenation due to loss of carrying capacity (anemia) or cardio respiratory damage
What can cause physical disease?
trauma, temp extremes, radiation, pressure
What is the most common chemical/drug causing disease? (broad term)
poisons
What are biological agents causing disease called?
pathogens
WHat is the most important cause of farm diseases?
nutritional imbalances
What is cell injury?
biochemical or structural alteration that impairs normal functional ability of cell, can be reversible or irreversible
What is the term for the point that cell injury becomes irreversible?
cell death
How can cell death occur?
necrosis or apoptosis
What is the first point of attack of hypoxia leading to cell injury?
cell's aerobic respiration (oxidative phosphorylation by mitochondria)
What does the slowing down of oxidative phosphorylation cause?
stops ATP production
When ATP production decreases what happens to the cell?
ATPase is decreased so sodium pump fails causing sodium retention and cellular swelling
What do cells rely on for energy when oxidative phosphorylation ceases?
glycolysis so ATP is generated through glucose derived from glycogen
What does glycolysis for ATP generation result in?
accumulation of lactic acid which lowers pH of cell
When ribosomes begin to detach from the glandular ER what does that cause in cell injury?
stops protein synthesis which causes accumulation of lipid in the cell
If hypoxia continues long enough what can be seen in the membrane and mitochondria?
increased membrane permeability
What point can cell injury be reversed?
up to ribosome detachment and accumulation of lipids
WHat can sometimes occur after restoration of blood flow to ischemic tissues instead of recovery of reversibly injured cells?
reperfusion injury, death after blood flow resumes
What are the three accepted mechanisms of reperfusion injury?
MAIN: Membrane Permeability Transition (MPT) -depletion of ATP and Ca influx in cell damage inner mitochondrial membrane and form high conductance channel in inner membrane
If ischemia persists, what occurs in irreversible injury to cells? (3)
vacuolization of mitochondria, swelling of lysosome, influx of Ca into cell
What are the two factors that characterize irreversibilty?
inability to reverse mitochondrial dysfunction
What is the central factor in the pathogenesis of irreversible cell injury?
cell membrane damage
What are the three vulnerable sites to irreversible cell injury?
aerobic respiration
What is a free radical?
chemical species that has a single unpaired electron in the outer orbital and can initiate autocatalytic reactions
What is the autocatalytic reaction that free radicals initiate?
any molecule free radicals react with gets converted into a free radical
What are four ways that radicals can be initiated in cells?
absorbtion of radiant energy (xray)
What are two main free radicals found in cells?
OH and O2-
What source is required for maximal oxidative cell injury that initiates the fenton reaction?
iron and superoxide
What do free radicals in the presence of oxygen cause?
lipid peroxidation of membranes
What do reactions with thymine in DNA produce?
single stranded breaks in DNA that can be responsible for cell death and malignancy
What does the cross linking of aa's methionine, histidine, cystine and lysine cause in the cell?
inactivate enzymes, especially sulfhydryl enzymes
How does the body get rid of free radicals? (3)
decay spontaneously
How do chemicals cause injury? (3)
Directly combine with critical molecular component or organelle causing increased membrane permeability and inhibition of ATPase
Which mechanism of chemical injury does CCl4, acetominophen and bromobenzene belong to?
conversion to free radicals
What are four causes of acute cellular swelling (hydropic degeneration)?
loss of blood supply
What is the first manifestation of almost all forms of injury to cells?
cellular swelling
What is the gross appearance of an organ with cellular swelling?
pale, turgid and heavy
What is the microscopic appearance of an organ with cellular swelling?
cytoplasm has ground glass appearnce and clear vacuoles
What does the clinical significance and fate of acute cell swelling depend on?
number of cells affected
What are the highly vulnerable cells to acute cell swelling? (4)
cardiac myocytes
What is swelling called in the brain? What does this cause in neurons?
cytotoxic edema
What do swollen epithelial cells in the kidney impair?
absorptive and secretory function
What does the obstruction of endothelial cell swelling worsen?
cellular hypoxia
What is necrosis?
death of cells or tissues in the living animal
What are the two ways we recognize necrosis?
changes in nucleus
What are the three types of nuclear changes associated with necrosis?
pyknosis
What is pyknosis?
nuclear shrinkage, stains dark blue/black and nucleolus is not visible
What is karyorrhexis?
chromatin of nucleus breaks into pieces
What is karyolyis?
nuclear chromatin lysis and leakage so nucleus appears hollow, at end stage nuclear membrane disappears
What are the two cytoplasmic changes associated with necrosis?
increased eosinophilia of cytoplasm
What does a cell with depletion of cytoplasmic glycogen appear as?
more glassy and homogenous
What does the appearance of necrosis depend on?
cause of necrosis and tissue involved
Why is morphologic evidence of cell death absent or minimal in acute and peracute mortality?
<6 hours changes only apparent ultrastructurally then histologically apparent 6-12hrs then grossly at 24-48hrs
What is the gross appearance of coagulative necrosis?
gray or white, firm, depressed
What does coagulative necrosis look like microscopically?
outline of coagulate cell is PRESERVED
What four things is coagulative necrosis generally seen in (caused by)?
infarcts - necrosis due to loss of blood supply
What is the type of coagulative necrosis seen in muscle protein of striated mm?
Zenker's necrosis
What can certain pathogenic microorganisms produce to cause Zenkers?
toxins, seen in localized infection
What plants can cause Zenkers?
coffee senna (cassia accidentalis)
What condition related to deficiency of Vit E and selenium in diets of calves, lambs and kids has Zenker's necrosis?
white mm disease
WHat is found in the cotton plant that causes coagulative necrosis in the cardiac mm of pigs?
Gossypol alkaloid
What inherited character of pigs affects shoulder, back and thigh mm with Zenker's necrosis?
malignant hyperthermia
What form of necrosis occurs in CNS and abscesses?
liquefactive necrosis
What is the gross appearance of liquefactive necrosis?
small/large cavity with yellow-white opaque fluid, walls of cavity are irregular and softened
What is the microscopic appearance of liquefactive necrosis?
clear space b/c necrosed tissue gets dissolved during processing. occasional pink staining. inflammatory rxn around area of necrosis
What is the cause of liquefactive necrosis?
same as for general but the reason it liquefies so quickly is the low protein high lipid content of these tissues
What is the gross appearance of caseous necrosis?
milk curd or cheese
What is the microscopic appearance of caseous necrosis?
loss of cell line, stains purple, distinct inflammatory border called granulomatous rxn, calcification usually seen
What causes caseous necrosis? What diseases is it typically present in?
toxins of microorganisms that cause tuberculosis, ovine caseous lymphadenitis, granulomatous inflammation
What is the gross appearance of necrosed fat?
white firm and chalky (loses shiny appearance)
What is the microscopic appearance of necrosed fat?
large shadowy outline of fat cell, pyknotic nuclei, blue/purple opaque material, surrounded by giant cells and macrophages
WHere is fat necrosis typically seen?
abdominal cavity
What is another term for necrosis of fat of the abdominal cavity?
enzymatic fat necrosis or pancreatic necrosis of fat
What causes enzymatic/pancreatic fat necrosis?
escape of pancreatic lipase
What is another term for fat necrosis under the skin or pelvic canal?
traumatic necrosis of fat
What causes traumatic necrosis of fat?
pressure or mechanical trauma in skin or following dystocia in pelvic canal
When are young cattle affected with Peritoneal Fat Necrosis?
after prolonged grazing of tall fescue infected with Endophytic Fungus Acremonium Coenophialum
Where do hard masses of necrotic fat form in Peritoneal Fat Necrosis?
omentum, mesentery and peritoneal fat
When is clinical disease observed with peritoneal fat necrosis?
when necrosed fat obstructs intestine,, uterus or ureter
What does Endophytic Fungus Acremonium Coenophialum ingestion cause in adult cattle, sheep and horses?
Summer Fescue Toxicosis = reduced performance, fever, rough coat and salivation, cold/wet seeking
What are the five mechanisms of disposal of necrosed tissue?
liquefied by auto/heterolysis and removed by blood and lymph if small area
What is the condition when saprophytic bacteria invade necrosed tissue?
gangrene
What are the three types of gangrene?
dry
Where does dry vs. moist gangrene occur?
dry in tissue that has limited blood/fluid and wet in tissues that have good blood supply
Why is there usually no proliferation of bacteria seen in dry gangrene?
environment does not provide favorable conditions for bacterial growth
When does the dry gangrene typically occur? (4)
loss of blood supply
WHere is the location of dry gangrene?
extremity of tail, ear or limb
What tissues are most commonly seen to have moist gangrene?
lung
WHat does the gangrenous part of wet gangrene look like?
swollen, soft, pulpy and dark black with gas bubbles
What is gangrene in the lung mostlly a result of?
aspiration pneumonia
What is intestinal gangrene mostly a complication of?
twist or torsion of intestine
WHen is gangrene seen in the mammary gland?
in mastitis caused by putrefactive bacteria
When is gas gangrene seen?
with anaerobic bacteria in tissues with wounds or it can spread from intestine through blood
What does gas gangrene look like?
dark red/black with gas bubbles and fluid and coagulation necrosis of tissue
What are all areas of gangrene separated from adjoining healthy tissue by?
sharp line of demarcation seen grossly as a swollen red zone of hyperemia and inflammation
What is apoptosis?
death of single cells as a result of the activities of a genetically programmed suicide pathway
What physiological events is apoptosis responsible for?
remodeling embryonic development
What pathologic stimuli can trigger apoptosis?
irradiation
What are the four morphologic features of apoptosis?
cell shrinkage
What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis in distribution?
apoptosis is a single cell while necrosis is contiguous cells
What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis in cell size and shape?
apoptosis causes shrinkage and conolution
What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis in nuclear morphology?
apoptosis causes chromatin condensation and fragmentation
What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis in plasma membranes?
intact until phagocytized in apoptosis
What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis in cytoplasm?
apoptosis has retained apoptotic bodies
What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis in inflammation?
absent in apoptosis
What is postmortem autolysis?
autolysis of cells after somatic death
What causes postmortem autolysis?
total diffuse hypoxia and cells degenerate just like hypoxic cell injury
What are the three things that cause postmortem changes to vary in onset and rate?
cause of death
What is rigor mortis? How long after death does is start and last? Why does it happen?
contraction of mm after death
Which has stronger rigor mortis: muscular or cachetic animals?
muscular
What is algor mortis? What does it depend on?
gradual cooling of cadaver
What is livor mortis?
gravitational poolin of blood to down side of animal
What is postmortem clotting? What delays this?
clot in heart and vessels begins within an hour after death
Which ventricle is always empty postmortem?
left
What is hemoglobin imbibition?
red staining of tissues by hemoglobin released from lysed red blood cells
What is bile imbibition?
1-6 hours after death bile stains tissues yellow around gall bladder
What is pseudomelanosis?
blue-green discoloration of tissues by iron-sulfide, takes 18-24 hours for complete breakdown to occur
Why do tissues soften after death?
autolysis of cells and putrefactive bacteria
What is bloating the result of? Is it seen more in herbivores or carnivores?
postmortem bacterial gas formation in the digestive tract
What can the bloat line distinguish from?
ruminal tympany
What can bloat displace?
organs (rectal prolapse, diaphramp compression, frothy fluid)
WHy does pale foci develop on the liver? (2)
increased intra abdominal pressure squeezes blood from these areas
WHen does mucosal sloughing occur and what organ is it seen in most?
1-6 hrs
What does fatty change refer to?
ABNORMAL accumulation of fat (inside cells), most often seen in liver, kidney, heart and sk. mm.
Normally how do fats reach the liver?
from fat depots in form of free fatty acids
What happens to all fatty acids in the liver?
either oxidized and used directly for energy or esterified to triglycerides and converted to cholesterol/phospholipids or oxidized to ketone bodies
WHat are five reasons for fatty change?
excessive release of fat from liver
What two things can cause defects in formation of lipoproteins leading to fatty change?
poisons that interfere with protein synthesis
What is the gross appearance of excess fat in the liver?
yellow and pale with round edges, cut surface bulges and could float in formalin
What is the gross appearance of excess fat in the heart?
white/yellow streaking
What is the gross appearance of excess fat in the kidney?
yellow/tan streaking of cortex and medulla
WHat is the microscopic appearance of fat in the liver?
small round empty vacuoles (dissolved fat with processing)
What is the microscopic appearance of fat in the heart?
fine vacuoles in sarcoplasm of mm cells
What is the microscopic appearance of fat in the kidney?
variable sized droplets in cytoplasm of epithelial cells of proximal convolouted tubul and ascending loop of Henle
What animal normally has fat in the proximal tubular epithelium of the kidney and if seen microscopically is not pathogenic?
cats
Why is fat seen microscopically as empty round vacuoles?
fat is dissolved in organic solvents
How is fat distinguished from glycogen?
staining
Is fatty change reversible?
generally yes, remove cause and it generally resolved but if severe it can be irreversible
What is fatty infiltration?
accumulation of fat outside cells due to rupture of overloaded lipid in cells
What makes cytoplasm appear foamy?
macrophages phagocytosing the lipid from ruptured cells
Where does pathological accumulation of glycogen occur most often? Less often?
most often in liver, kidney, leukocytes and cardiac mm
Are abnormal accumulations of glycogen seen grossly?
no (TQ)
What is the microscopic appearance of abnormal glycogen deposition?
irregular clear spaces in cytoplasm in stained tissues (not a clear boundary like fat, and no displaced nuclei)
What is the best stain to use for glycogen?
Best carmine
What causes glycogen deposition?
hyperglycemia (diabetes mellitus)
What are glycogen storage disease?
autosomal recessive inherited disorders characterized by deficiencies of various enzymes involved in synthesis or degradation of glycogen
How many glycogen storage diseases have been reported in animals?
six
What is type I glycogenosis and what animal does it occur in? What organ does it affect?
toy breeds
What is Pompe's DIsease (type II glycogenosis)? What animals is it in and where does glycogen accumulate?
deficiency of lysosomal acid maltase
What is Cori's DIsease (type III glycogenosis)? What animals is it in and where does glycogen accumulate?
german sheperd dogs
What is Type IV Glycogenosis? What animals is it in and where does glycogen accumulate?
Norwegian forest cats have deficiency of glycogen brancher enzyme causing accumulation in cardiac, sk mm, Purkinje fibers, and hepatocytes. kittens are stillborn or survive 5-7 mo with atrophy then die
What is Type VII GLycogenosis? What animals does it affect and where does glycogen accumulate?
deficiency of M type of phosphofructokinase (PFK) in English Springer Spaniel dogs so they get hemolytic anemia, intravascular hemolysis and hemoglobinuria
What is Poly saccharide Storage Myopathy (PSSM) in horses?
Quarter horses, Arabians, Morgans, Pony of Americas and draft breeds
What is the lysosome's job? What do they contain to help?
primary disposal and recycling center of cell, contain hydrolytic enzymes
What happens with an inherited lack of lysosomal enzyme?
catabolism of substrate doesn't happen causing accumulation of partially degraded insoluble metabolite in lysosome
How are missing lysosomal enzymes inhereted?
autosomal recessive disorders
How are lysosomal storage diseases classified?
according to major stored material (mucopolysaccharidosis, sphongolipidosis, glycogenosis, mucolipidososis)
What are the two types of morphological lesions seen with lysosomal storage diseases?
primary: increased size and number of secondary lysosomes
Are lysosomal storage diseases common?
no, most are rare
Type VII
Type I - glucose-6-phosphatase, glycogen, liver, toy breeds
What is amyloid? Amyloidosis?
amyloids are abnormal proteinaceous substances and amylodosis is when they are deposited extracellularly in tissues/organs
WHat is amyloid morphologically?
seen uniform in all tissues but not a single chemical entity
WHat is amyloid biochemically?
two major forms, deposited as several different pathogenic forms, hence not a single disease but diverse group of diseases
What are the two basic forms of fibrillar protein with amyloid?
amyloid light chain (AL) from plasma with immunoglobin light chains
What is amyloidosis based on?
clinical setting, anatomic distribution and biochemical composition of the amyloid
What is primary amyloidosis?
plasma cell dyscrasias including multiple myeloma and B lymphocyte proliferative disorders
What is secondary amyloidosis?
chronic inflammatory disease like tuberculosis and suppurative processes. sometimes in horses used for antiserum production (always secondary to a disease process)
What species is heredofamilial amyloidosis found?
humans and certain breeds of dogs and cats including Siamese, Abyssynian and Shar Pei's
What is amyloid of aging?
senile amyloidosis, documented in heart and brain of aged humans, B amyloid found in Alzheimer's disease in humans is reported to be in aged dogs
WHat is localized amyloidosis?
heterogenous in both chemical composition and presentation, seen in lung, heart, pancreas and endocrine organs and associated with tumors when in localized sites
WHat are the most common sites of amyloidosis? (3)
kidneys
What other organs may be affected by amyloidosis not as commonly? (9)
LN
What does amyloidosis present as in the liver grossly and microscopically?
grossly difficult to see if lesions are smallm but advanced it becomes hard, pale, enlarged and waxy
What does amyloidosis present as in the kidney grossly and microscopically?
grossly = large, pale grey and firm (or reduced in size)
What does amyloidosis present as in the spleen grossly?
marked enlargement with either Sago Spleen or Bacon Spleen, form, pale, gray and waxy
What is Sago spleen? Bacon spleen?
Sago = amyloid limited to splenic follicles as small hard white nodules
What stain is used specifically to see amyloid deposits?
Congo red, it stains pink and is the only one that does that
When are most cases of amyloid encountered?
at autopsy
WHat does renal involvement with amyloidosis cause clinically?
proteinuria and loss of antithrombin III causing thrombosis of pulmonary, coronary, splenic and renal aa
What species is renal infarct due to amyloidosis common?
dogs
What does liver amyloidosis cause in metabolic activity?
impairment
What is the prognosis of patients with amyloid?
poor
What does pancreatic amyloidosis commonly cause in cats?
non insulin dependent diabetes
What are hyaline changes?
alteration within cells or extracellular space that gives a homogenous glassy pink appearnce in histological sections stained with H&E
What are the two types of intracellular Hyaline changes?
droplets in proximal convoluted tubules of kidney
What are the six forms of extracellular hyaline changes?
collagen fibrous tissue in old scars
WHat is hyaline membrane disease?
premature human infants, calves and foals with immature lungs unable to synthesize surfactant b/c of type II pneumocyte deficiency
What is pathologic calcification?
deposition of calcium salts in tissues other than teeth and bone
What are the two types of pathologic calcification? WHich is harmful and which is beneficial?
dystrophic is beneficial and metastatic is harmful
What is dystrophic calcification?
deposition of Ca salts in dead or degenerating tissues. NOT related to increased blood [Ca]
What is metastatic calcification?
depostion of Ca salts in tissues as a result of high blood [Ca]
What does pathologic calcification appear as grossly and microscopically?
grossly = white or gray irregularly round particles, gives gritty sound when cut
What is the significance of calcification?
defense of the body, necrosed tissue is made harmless by depositing Ca salts unless in a location that interferes with tissue fxn
What are the five causes of hypercalcemia in animals?
hyperactivity of parathyroid gland
Which cause of hypercalcemia is a rare condition in dogs and cats?
hyperactivity of parathyroid gland
What is the cause of excess Vit D in the blood causing hypercalcemia?
over dose of Vit D products in medication or diet, especially in plants of Solanum Malacoxylon and Costrum diurnum
What are examples of granulomatous diseases in dogs causing hypercalcemia?
TB
What are the three most common neoplasms that cause hypercalcemia in dogs and cats?
lymphoma
What animals has metastatic calcification mostly been ovserved in?
cattle sheep and goats
What animal is it normal to see Ca deposition in the form of white streaks close to small blood vessels in the allantois and amnion of the placenta and should not be observed as pathological?
bovine
Where is metastatic calcification mostly seen? Where else is it sometimes found?
mostly on basment membrane of aorta and mm arteries but could also be in lungs, kidney, mm and skin
What is not a regular feature of hypercalcemia in dogs and cats?
calcification of arteries
What do clinical signs of hypercalcemia depend on?
magnitude of Ca increase and duration of increase
What concentration of Ca in the blood gives rise to life threatening signs?
more than 18mg/dl
What two animals have higher than normal Ca levels and should not be considered in the diagnosis of hypercalcemia?
horses and rabbits
What are the clinical signs of hypercalcemia?
polyuria/polydipsia (due to inability to concentrate urine)
What is a serious consequence of long standing hypercalcemia?
renal failure due to ischemic tubular necrosis and mineralisation of epithelial cells
What is calcinosis?
calcification under the skin
What are the two forms of calcinosis?
calcinosis cutis
What is calcinosis cutis?
in dogs with hyperadrenocorticism, mineralization of dermal collagen and epidermal follicular basment membrane
What is calcinosis circumscripta?
dystrophic calcification, uncommon in young dogs and rare in cats most likely seen in large dogs (German Sheperds) in CT of dermis of skin over pressure points and sites of trauma
What do the gross lesions of calcinosis circumscripta appear as?
single raised nodules in SQ tissue with ulceration in epidermis
What do the microscopic lesions of calcinosis circumscripta appear as?
pale to intensely basophilic cell material surrounded by inflammatory cells consisting of neutrophils, lymphocytes, histocytes and giant cells
What is gout?
uric acid and urates are deposited in tissues, seen most in birds and reptiles (occasionally dogs/cats)
What are the two forms of gout?
articular form - deposits in joints
Where else is gout observed in birds and reptiles?
visceral organs (liver and kidneys)
What is the gross appearance of gout?
gray layer over serous membranes
What is the microscopic appearance of gout?
visceral membranes have gray crystalline material
Wha are the two causes of gout?
incomplete metabolism of nucleic acid
What is pathological pigmentation? What are the four forms?
pigment where there shouldn't be any
What is exogenous pigmentation?
pigment formed outside the body like carbon, dust or metals
What is endogenous pigmentation?
pigment formed inside the body due to A. phenolytic (melanin) B. hematogenous (hemoglobin) or C. lipogenic
What is the exogenous pigmentation form of Pneumoconiosis?
condition of lungs caused by retention of mineral or organic dust particles
Asbestosis
Anthracosis: carbon particles
What animals is anthracosis found in? Where in the body does it affect?
dogs and other animals exposed to carbon dust
What is the microscopic appearance of anthracosis?
carbon particles seen as black granules inside macrophages of LNs and lungs (alveolar wall and septa)
What can large amounts of carbon in the lungs cause?
fibrosis and predisposition for pulmonary infections
When do animals show silicosis, asbestosis or siderosis? What do the lesions look like?
rare even in animals (mules/donkeys) working in mines
What is the endogenous pigmentation melanosis?
pigment is found in other locations not normally found in and in larger amounts than normal, typically in lungs, pleura, meninges and heart
What is the gross appearance of melanosis?
irregular black or brown spots a centimeter or more
What ist he microscopic appearance of melanosis?
pigment inside cytoplasm of melanocytes
What is the significance of melanosis?
harmless, no clinical signs
What color does oxygenated vs. unoxygenated hemoglobin give to tissues?
oxy- red
In excessive intravascular hemolysis what color does hemoglobin stain plasma, kidneys and urine?
pink
In CO poisoning (most common form of gas poisoning) what color is the blood?
cherry red
In poisoning by nitrites, chlorates, NSAIDs/anesthetics, and copper causing intravascular hemolysis what happens to ferros iron (FeII) and what color does this turn the blood?
FeII is oxidized to ferric iron (FeIII) to form methemoglobin which can't transport O2 turning blood chocolate brown
What are the main pigments derived from hemoglobin?
hemosiderin
What are the two hemes that hemoglobin is made of? Which hem is divisible into ferrous iron and pigment porphyrin?
pigment heme (divisible)
Where is hemosiderin princippally seen?
red pulp of spleen
What is the gross appearance of Hemosiderine?
not detectable unless large accumulation of pigment occurs causing brown tissue discoloration
What is the microscopic appearance of hemosiderine?
golden yellow pigment in cytoplasm of macrophages
What is the reaction of hemosiderine with potassium ferocyanide stain turning it blue?
Prussian blue reaction
What does the presence of hemosiderin indicate?
presence of other diseases in animals, most common being autoimmune hemolysis
WHat are the causes of hemosiderin? (3)
hemolytic diseases
Is hemosiderin harmful?
the pigment is not but it's presence indicates a harmful disease
What is hemochromatosis?
rare condition of iron pigment deposition in cytoplasm of hepatocytes and tubular epithelial cells of kidney
What animals is hemochromatosis in?
cattle
What is hemochromatosis attributed to in animals?
too much iron and not enough copper/cobalt in diet
How can the iron pigment seen in hemochromatosis be demonstrated with staining?
Prussian blue rxn
What are the two hematin pigments?
formalin pigment
How is formalin pigment formed? WHere is it seen?
by acid on hemoglobin on tissues fixed in aqueous acidic formalin
How is formalin pigment seen microscopically?
dark brown pigment between and on the erythrocytes, does not stain with iron pigment!
What parasitic diseases do you see parasite hematin with? How is it seen?
malaria
What is icterus/jaundice/hyperbilirubinemia?
yellow staining of tissue by bilirubin as result of either excess production or reduced clearance of bilirubin so it accumulates in plasma
WHat is the metabolism of bilirubin?
liver conjugates bilirubin with glucoronic acid to become conjugated bilirubin then put in bile ducts
What causes prehaptic or hemolytic jaundice?
acute hemolytic diseases where erythrocytes are destroyed in too large of a number for the liver to conjugate all of them to UNconjugated bilirubin circulates in the blood
What causes hepatic/toxic jaundice?
degeneration of liver cells causing them to be incapable of conjugating bilirubin so UNconjugated bilirubin circulates then liver cells become swollen and block bile canaliculi so COnjugated bilirubin circulates
What causes post hepatic/obstructive jaundice?
obstruction of bile flow from liver to intestines by swelling, parasites, stones, dieseases/granulomas causing COnjugated bilirubin to circulate
How is jaundice diagnosed in early vs. advanced stages?
early need lab tests to compare yellow color of serum to potassium dichromate solution
What does the van den berg rxn test for in jaundice?
qualitiative to determine different types of jaundice (toxic vs. hemolytic)
Is bilirubin harmful?
not unless excessive then it causes itching
What type of bilirubin circulates in obstructive jaundice of horses and ruminants?
unconjugated
What type of bilirubin circulates in hemolytic jaundice?
conjugated
What is photosensitization? What is another name?
result of light on some fluorescent pigment, also called porphyria
What animals have photosensitization?
cattle
What is the progression of photosensitization?
erythema and inflammatory edema to necrosis and skin sloughing
Where are the strongest effects of photosensitization seen?
unprotected parts of skin without pigmentation, hair or fleece
What is inflammation of the head in sheep due to photosensitization called?
big head
What are the three types of photosensitization?
Type I (primary photosensitization)
What is type I primary photosensitization?
plant pigment or drugs are ingested, occurs without liver disease
What is Congenital erythropoeitic porphyria?
in cattle, swin and short hair and siamese cats due to inherited metabolic defect in synthesis of normal heme pigment ferroprotoporphyrin
What is seen in cattle vs. swine/cats with congenital erythropoeitic porphyria?
dermatitis in cattle
What is type II Hepatogenous photosensitization?
chlorophyl normally broken down in ruminant intestines to phylloerythrin should be removed by liver but if liver is damaged or blocked then pigment circulates and causes photosensitization
Is photosensitization in all forms of hepatic injury?
no so must be something more than just liver problems associated with TYpe II
What is lipofuscin?
wear and tear pigment in brain, heart, sk/sm mm that imparts brown color to tissues so also called Pigment of Brown Atrophy
WHat is lipofuscin seen as microscopically?
yellow/dark brown granules in cytoplasme
What is the intracellular pigment lipofuscin believed to be fromed from? What diseases is it present in?
fatty acids derived from membranes of autophagocytosed organelles
What is Ceroid?
yellow brown pigment in liver cells of horse, dog, cattle, pig and rat attributed to choline deficiency
What tissues has the pigment similar to ceroid that occurs especially in Vit E deficiency been reported in?
cardiac/sm mm, spleen, intestines and macrophages
What term does the gross appearance of ceroid give rise to?
yellow fat disease
What does ceroid appear as microscopically?
yellow to brown granular in cell cytoplasm
What are the two circulation disorders due to redistribution of blood within a part of the vascular system?
hyperemia
What are the two circulation disorders due to loss of circulating blood volume?
hemmorrhage
What are the two circulation disorders due to accumulation of extra vascular fluid?
transudate - edema
What are the two circulation disorders due to presence of solid masses/abnormal constituents in blood/blood vessels?
thrombosis
What is hyperemia?
increase in volume of blood in tissues, may be active, passive, local or general, acute or chronic in onset
What is active hyperemia?
abnormal accumulation of ARTERIAL blood in arterioles/arteriolar capillar bed.
What does physiological active hyperemia occur in response to?
in response to increased metabolic activity (in gastric mucosa after a meal)
What does pathological active hyperemia occur in response to?
response in inflammatory rxn
What do tissue affected by active hyperemia appear as?
bright red
What is passive hyperemia?
congestion or passive congestion
What do tissues affected by passive hyperemia appear as?
filled with deoxygenated blood so dark red/blue and swollen
WHen does acute local passive hyperemia occur?
when venous drainage from an organ is obstructed conmplely or partially
What are the causes of organ misalignment leading to acute local passive hyperemia? What else can cause this besides organ alignment?
telescoping of intestines
WHat causes chronic local passive hyperemia?
compression (tumors/abcesses of mesenteric vv)
WHat are the two effects of local passive hyperemia?
increased venous pressure causing edema
What do the consequences of local passive hyperemia depend on?
organ involved
WHat are the causes of general passive hyperemia? (3)
cardiac failure
WHat leads to cardiac failure causing general passive hyperemia? (4)
valvular disease
WHat leads to impeded venous return causing general passive hyperemia? (3)
caval thrombosis
What leads to increased pulmonary resistance causing general passive hyperemia?
hydrothorax ( thoracic fluids)
WHat are the three effects of general passive hyperemia?
reduced output (forward effect)
WHat is ischemia?
inadequate blood supplies to an organ or tissue (usually arterial)
WHat are the two causes of ischemia?
heart failure due to hemorrhage/fluid loss
What are the effects of ischemia?
degenerative lesions causing infarct of cells b/c of hypoxia and fibrosis
WHat do the effects of ischemia depend on?
type of tissue, speed and time of onset or whether it is a partial or complete occlusion
What is infarction?
area of coagulative necrosis
WHat is hemorrhage?
escape of blood from vascular system, can be acute or chronic
WHat is hemorrhage by rhexis?
hemorrhage through break/cut in vessel wall
What is diapedesis?
passive movement of RBCs into extravascular spaces through microscopic endothelial defects
What is petechiae?
pinpoint sized hemorrhages (1-2mm)
WHat is ecchymoses?
large and blotchy hemorrhages (2-3cm)
WHat is purpura?
intermediate sized hemorrhages up to 1cm
WHat is paint brush hemorrhage?
extensive areas of hemorrhages especially on mucosal/serous surfaces
WHat is hematoma?
large clotted blood in an organ
What is blood that has escaped into a serous cavity?
hemothorax
What are the 6 causes of hemorrhage?
trauma
WHat three things does the consequence of hemorrhage depend on?
amount of blood loss
If blood loss is not too large or quick what happens?
circulating volume maintained by peripheral vasoconstriction, utilization of splenic reserves and water
If circulating volume cannot be maintained by peripheral vasoconstriction, utilization of splenic reserves and water what occurs?
venous return to heart fails and death
What may rapid blood loss cause? How much blood must be lost to be fatal?
hypovolemoic shock
What is the effect of acute loss of 10-20% of blood volume and slow chronic losses of greater volume?
no drastic clinical effects, only anemia and hypoproteinemia
WHat happens if hemorrhages occur into the brain? Trachea and bronchi?
death
WHat is edema?
abnormal accumulation of fluid in tissue spaces or body cavities
What are the two types of edema?
inflammatory or non-inflammatory
WHat are the causes of non-inflammatory edema? (4)
decreased plasma oncotic pressure
What causes decreased plasma oncotic pressure?
low protein in blood due to 1. decreased protein formation or 2. increased protein loss
WHat causes decreased protein formation?
nutritional
What causes increased loss of protein?
renal disease (renal edema)
What causes increased hydrostatic pressure?
passive congestion, termed cardiac edema
WHat are the three ways the lympoh drainage can become obstructed?
mechanical (organ displacement)
What causes Na and water retention? (2)
congestive heart failure
What is local edema?
confined to a particular organ/tissue in the body
What is generalized edema?
whole body affected due to gravity. may be associated with generalized passive hyperemia, hypoptoeinemia or increased Na retention
What is the predilection site of generalized edema in dogs vs. cats vs. sheep/cattle vs. horses?
dogs - peritoneal cavity (ascites)
What are the sites of edema important for?
diagnosis and prognosis
What is anasarca?
generalized edema under the skin
What is ascites?
edema in peritonela cavity
What is hydrothorax?
edema in thoracic cavity
What is hydropericardium?
edema in pericardial sac
What is hydrocele?
edema in scrotal layers
What is pulmonary edema?
either a general pattern or due to:
What is edema of the brain?
serious and lifethreatening due to limited capacity for swollen brain to expand in cranium
What is the gross appearance of edema? (non-inflammatory)
swollen, cool, no redness or pain
What is the microscopic appearance of edema? (non inflammatory)
enlarged extracellular space
What is edema fluid called?
transudate
What is inflammorty edema fluid called?
exudate
What is the etiology of exudate vs. transudate?
inflammation for exudate
What is the protein content of exudate vs. transudate?
high in exudate
What is the specific gravity of exudate vs. transudate?
1.018 for exudate
What is the clotting capability of exudate vs. transudate?
exudate clots
Are inflammatory cells present in exudate or transudate?
exudate
What is the appearance of exudate vs. transudate?
exudate is turbid to opaque and color varies
What are the effects of a small amount of edema vs long standing vs. large amounts?
small amounts are absorbed
What is a thrombus? Thrombosis?
mass formed from contituents of blood in blood vessels or heart
What should thrombosis be distringuished from in necropsy?
post mortem clotting
What are the predisposing factors of thrombosis and what are they known as?
Virchow's Triad:
What occurs as a result of alteration in vascular endothelium?
deposition of platelets is first visible change
What can endothelial damage occur as a result of?
inflammation
What are inflammatory causes of endothelial damage?
arteritis
What are degenerative causes of endothelial damage?
arteriosclerosis
What route of administration of chemicals causes endothelial damage?
IV
What are the two types of alterations in blood flow leading to thrombosis?
stasis and turbulence
Where does stasis occur?
in veins following occlusion of any vessel during post op recummbence
What happens during stasis?
adhesiveness of platelets increases causing aggregation and local activation/concentration of plasma clotting factors
Where does turbulence occur?
sites of branching of arteries in arteriosclerosis, congenital heart diseases and venous valves
Why does turbulence cause thrombosis?
platelets come in contact with endothelium more frequently than normal
WHat conditions responsible for hypercoagulation of blood increase the likelihood of thrombosis?
hereditary: lack of anticoagulants like antithrombin III, protein C and prothrombin
What are white/pale thrombi?
composed of platelets and fibrin, found in rapidly moving blood like heart or aa.
What are red thrombi?
contain erythrocytes and found in slow moving blood like large vv. like posterior vena cava
What are mural thrombus?
attached to side of vessel and does not completely occlude its lumen
What are occlusive thrombus?
completely block vessel
What thrombus is seen in horses and caused by larvae of Strongylus vulgaris?
in anterior mesenteric a. caused by parasites
What does thrombosis in iliac aa of horses cause?
lameness
What can thrombi lead to?
edema formation
What can repeated damage of blood vessels by trauma like inexpert venous injection in the jugular?
thrombosis
What can the viruses swin fever and newcastle cause?
attack endothlial cells and cause thrombosis
WHere does thrombi develop in cattle?
posterior vena cava in inflammatory processes around the abscess in adjacent liver parenchyma
What is thrombus resolution?
due to fibrinolysis by activation of plasmin and leukocyte enzyme digestion
What is thrombus organization?
endothelium is restored or recanalization occurs to restore circulation
What causes a thrombus to be converted into an abcsess?
bacterial invasion
What causes emboli as a result of thrombus?
pieces break off and may cause infarction
What is the differnce in color between postmortem clot and thrombus?
dark red if postmortem
What is thye difference in the outer surface of postmortm clots and thrombus?
smooth and shining if postmortem
What is the main diofference between postmortem clots and thrombus?
postmortem not attached to vessel wall
What is the mixture of erythrocytes, fibrin and leukocytes in postmortem clotting vs. thrombus?
uniform in postmortem
What is the shape of postmortem clotting and thrombus?
shape of vessel in postmortem
Which has laminations: postmortem clotting or thrombus?
thrombus has red and white laminations
Which can fibrin be observed under low light microscope, postmortem clotting or thrombus?
thrombus
What is chicken fat clot?
postmortem clot, usually found in heart
WHat is disseminated intravascular coagulation? (DIC)
diffuse intravascular thrombosis occurs in microvasculature, secondary to platelet activation or release of thromboplastin into circulation
What are condtions associated with DIC in animals? (14)
malignancies (leukemia)
What are the clinical effects of DIC due to?
balance between thrombin and plasmin
What is acute DIC?
uncontrolled hemorrhage and inability to form a clot, death is due to shock
What is chronic DIC?
liver and bone marrow slowly increase production of coagulation and platelets
What animal is DIC commonly in?
dogs
What is an embolus? Embolism?
embolus is solid material carried by blood stream from point of origin to distant site. embolism is formation of embolus
What are common emboli?
pieces of thrombus
WHere are emboli carried?
along direction of blood flow until arrested in capillary bed where it occludes
Where do emboli originating in the venous system/ right heart vs. left heart/arterial system end up?
right heart lodges in lungs
What three things do the effects of embolism depend on?
degree of occlusion
What happens to organs without good collateral supply in embolism?
infarction - necrosis of area
What is an infarct?
area of necrosed tissue caused by circuatory obstruction
Are most infarcts in aa or vv?
aa (95%)
What are the two types of infarcts grossly?
dull and pale (solid organs like kidney and heart)
What are the gross and microscopic lesions of infarct similar to?
coagulative necrosis
What are the clinical effects of infarction?
not pronounced unless in CNS (shows neurological disorders) or intestine (colic, gangrene)
If a large area is infarcted what may result?
shock due to histamine absorption
What is shock?
clinical entity caused by inadequate perfusion of tissue
What are the three causes of shock?
cardiogenic
What is cardiogenic shock due to?
reduced cardiac filling or emptying
What causes reduced cardiac filling? (5)
pericardial effusion
What causes reduced cardiac emptying? (3)
bradicardia
What is hypolvolemic shock due to? (3)
loss of whole blood
What causes loss of plasma? (3)
burns
What causes loss of water/electrolytes?
vomiting or diarrhea
What causes vasculogenic shock?
neurogenic
What leads to neurogenic causes of vasculogenic shock? (2)
fright
WHat leads to endotoxic causes of vasculogenicv shock?
overwhelming bacterial infection
What leads to anaphylactiv causes of vasculogenic shock?
massive histamine release
What is the pathology of shock? (5)
tissue necrosis
What are clinical signs of shock?
mental depression