Pathology 1

Front 1

Pathology

Back 1

the scientific study of disease; how it is caused; how it progresses; and how the body deals with it

Front 2

Health

Back 2

the ability to adapt to internal and external environmental changes. It is the presence of a homeostatic state, not just the absence of disease or dysfunction

Front 3

Homeostasis

Back 3

the body’s tendency to maintain constant conditions within certain parameters in the internal environment by monitoring and adapting to changes in both the internal and external environments examples of homeostatically controlled conditions include blood gas composition, blood pressure, and body temperature.

Front 4

ETIOLOGY

Back 4

the cause of disease

Front 5

PATHOGENESIS

Back 5

progression of a disease from the start; the “story”; the cellular events and reactions

Front 6

MORPHOLOGY

Back 6

signs and symptoms; how a disease manifests; a.k.a. “manifestations”

Front 7

SEQUELA

Back 7

a condition that follows as a consequence of another condition; can be the “stages” of a disease or the “complications” of a disease

Front 8

What are the four components of the disease process

Back 8

ETIOLOGY
PATHOGENESIS
MORPHOLOGY
SEQUELA

Front 9

Genetic diseases

Back 9

- Caused by a mutated gene or chromosome; a.k.a. inherited; ex. Muscular Dystrophy
- Can also be used to refer to a predisposition to disease left by a certain genetic makeup, ex. fair-skinned people are genetically predisposed to skin cancer

Front 10

Acquired diseases

Back 10

- Those that develop during or following birth
- Most diseases in adults are of this nature

Front 11

Congenital diseases

Back 11

-Present at birth
-Caused during development or delivery
-May be either genetic or acquired

Front 12

Causes of Acquired Diseases (6)

Back 12

1. PHYSICAL AGENTS – trauma, temperature, radiation, electric shock, pressure changes
2. CHEMICAL AGENTS – drugs, imbalances, toxins, poisons, pollutants, or conditions caused by medical treatment (“iatrogenic”)
3. NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES OR TOXICITIES – poor supply of nutrient(s), poor absorption, or poor utilization
4. INFECTION – viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi, poisons, etc.
5. IMMUNOLOGICAL – shock, allergies, anaphylaxis
6. PSYCHOLOGICAL – stress, addictions

Front 13

Incidence

Back 13

the disease occurrence, or the rate at which the disease occurs, or the number of new cases in a time period

Front 14

Etiology

Back 14

the cause of disease; includes any factors that may be involved in the development of the disease, susceptibility of the patient, nature of the pathogen, and the entry mode (or way the body is invaded)

Front 15

Insidious

Back 15

gradual onset of development of a disease

Front 16

Idiopathic

Back 16

cause is unknown

Front 17

Iatrogenic

Back 17

caused by medication or medical procedure

Front 18

Prognosis

Back 18

the probable outcome or course of a disease

Front 19

Sign

Back 19

any objective evidence of disease of dysfunction; an observable, physical characteristic perceived by an examiner

Front 20

Vital Sign

Back 20

a sign of life: pulse, respiration, temperature

Front 21

Symptom

Back 21

any indication of disease subjectively perceived by the patient

Front 22

Immune

Back 22

being highly resistant to a disease; forming antibodies following an antigen challenge (exposure to a pathogen

Front 23

Autoimmune

Back 23

a disease involving the production of antibodies directed against one’s own tissues; the inability of the body to differentiate “self” from “non-self”

Front 24

Ischemia

Back 24

a temporary deficiency of blood supply; caused by constriction or obstruction of a blood vessel

Front 25

Necrosis

Back 25

cell death

Front 26

Neoplasia

Back 26

the formation of a tumor; any new and abnormal growth; can be benign or malignant; has no function and detracts from the health of the organism

Front 27

Paresthesia

Back 27

abnormal sensation, such as: burning, prickling, numbness, or tingling

Front 28

Anesthesia

Back 28

loss of feeling or sensation

Front 29

Hyperesthesia

Back 29

abnormally increased sensitivity to stimuli

Front 30

Paresis

Back 30

incomplete or slight paralysis

Front 31

Paralysis

Back 31

complete loss of motor control

Front 32

Virus

Back 32

a small infectious agent consisting of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein or membranous coat; has no organelles; cannot replicate outside a host; replicates by using the host cell’s enzymes and organelles to transcribe the viral genetic material

Front 33

Bacterium

Back 33

a single-celled microorganism that can reproduce by rapid cell division and cause disease by producing toxins

Front 34

Prefix
Hyper-

Back 34

an excess more than normal, ie. hypertension

Front 35

Prefix
Hypo-

Back 35

a deficiency less than normal, ie. hypotension

Front 36

Prefix
Meta-

Back 36

a change from one state to another

Front 37

Prefix
A- or An-

Back 37

without, or absence of, ie. anoxia

Front 38

Suffix
-itis

Back 38

Inflammation

Front 39

Suffix

-oma

Back 39

Tumor

Front 40

Suffix

-osis

Back 40

a state or condition of

Front 41

-oid

Back 41

a resemblance to

Front 42

-plasia

Back 42

a disorder of growth

Front 43

-opathy

Back 43

an abnormal state

Front 44

-ectomy

Back 44

surgical removal

Front 45

-lysis

Back 45

destroy

Front 46

-emia

Back 46

blood

Front 47

PRIMARY VS SECONDARY

Back 47

– A PRIMARY CONDITION (10) is one that occurs without evidence of a preceding cause; ex. 10 hypertension (abnormally high blood pressure without a known cause (idiopathic)
– A SECONDARY CONDITION (20) is one that occurs as a complication of some other underlying condition, ex. 20 hypertension (abnormally high blood pressure due to another disorder such as kidney disease

Front 48

ACUTE VS CHRONIC

Back 48

– ACUTE refers to:
o A condition that;
• Has a rapid onset
• Is in the initial stage of injury
• Has a short-term course
• Has a severe intensity
o May be recurring acute
o Can refer to the type of onset, inflammation, or condition itself
- CHRONIC refers to:
o A condition that;
• Follows an acute episode but has prolonged, lasting months or years
• Has a low intensity
• May be long-term
• Is in the final stage of injury

Front 49

BENIGN VS MALIGNANT

Back 49

– BENIGN – rarely fatal, unless interfering with a vital structure (ex. pressing on an organ or vessel); benign tumors are usually localized
MALIGNANT – potentially fatal; may invade and spread from sit of origin

Front 50

Benign

Back 50

Slow growing, good outcome
Limited growth potential
Expansive, compressive growth
Sharply demarcated
Encapsulated border
Cells resemble origin tissue
Highly differentiated
Uniform Cell populations
May retain some normal function
Regular/normal nuclei
Well developed cytoplasm
Some cells dividing
Always local – never metastasize

Front 51

Malignant

Back 51

Fast growing, leads to death
Unlimited growth potential
Infiltrating, penetrating growth
No sharp borders
Cannot be removed as easily
Cells differ considerably
Undifferentiated – Anaplasia
Heterogeneous cells – Pleomorphism
No specialized function
Cells with abnormal nuclei
Variable amounts of cytoplasm
Many cells undergoing mitosis
Possible metastasis – spread in body

Front 52

Metastasis

Back 52

ability of tumor cells to move from one place to another in the body
- Spread by lymph, blood, or along the surface of body cavities
- To establish a new tumor they must overcome the immune system, continue dividing and develop new blood supply (angiogenesis)

Front 53

Hypoxia

Back 53

decreased (below normal) levels of oxygen to the tissue

Front 54

Anoxia

Back 54

absence of oxygen to the tissue

Front 55

Hypoesthesia

Back 55

diminished sensitivity to stimulation

Front 56

Pleomorphism

Back 56

occurring in multiple forms

Front 57

-plasia

Back 57

formation (of cells) [G. plasso to form]

Front 58

EPONYMOUS NAMES

Back 58

– When a disease is named after a person or place associated with it

Front 59

SYNDROMES

Back 59

– A combination of possible signs and symptoms or lesions that help to define or diagnose a disease
(Not all persons with the same syndrome will exhibit the same symptoms (ie. Fibromyalgia Syndrome, Down’s Syndrome)

Front 60

Cellular Adaption

Back 60

– Normal cells are in a “HOMEOSTATIC STEADY STATE”, meaning they are capable of adapting to constantly changing physiological demands
– When stresses threaten the structural or functional integrity of the cell the cell must adapt to overcome and survive, otherwise it will become injured or die.
– Stresses placed on cells can be “normal or appropriate”, such as exercise on a muscle cell, or can be “abnormal” as in disease or disuse.

Front 61

Atrophy (Cellular Adaption)

Back 61

– A decrease in cell, tissue, or organ size
– Can be due to disuse, denervation, decreased hormonal stimulus, decreased blood supply (or nutrition), ischemia, or aging

Front 62

HYPERTROPHY (Cell Adaptation)

Back 62

– An increase in size or volume of a tissue
– Produced by an increase in size of existing cells, usually due to an increased workload or increased hormonal stimulation
– Can be physiological or normal, ie. increased work demands on skeletal muscle, or can be pathological or abnormal when adaptive, ie. enlargement of the heart in response to congestive heart failure

Front 63

HYPERPLASIA (Cell Adaption)

Back 63

– Overproliferation (an increase in #) of normal cells
– Occurs only in tissues where cells have the ability to divide (ie. epidermis can grow by hyperplasia, but neither muscle nor nervous tissue can)
– Can be in response to a “normal” stimulus such as breast enlargement due to pregnancy

Front 64

HYPOPLASIA

Back 64

– Incomplete or under development of an organ or tissue

Front 65

ANAPLASIA

Back 65

– Loss of differentiation of cells; cells alter to a more embryonic cell type (may be found in tumor cells)

Front 66

METAPLASIA

Back 66

– Conversion from one cell type to another cell type
– Involves “reprogramming” developing stem cells
– Occurs in response to long term irritation and inflammation as an adaptive process for better survival
– Ex. ciliated columnar epithelial cells are replaced by stratified squamous cells in the bronchi and trachea of a habitual smoker (function of cilia is therefore lost and metaplastic epithelium is predisposed to cancerous transformation if irritant is not removed)

Front 67

DYSPLASIA

Back 67

– Abnormal cell growth resulting in various sizes and shapes
– Also occurs as a result of long-term irritation or inflammation
– Most commonly seen in the respiratory or cervical epithelium
– May revert back to original structure if irritant is removed or may be a precursor to cancer

Front 68

INDUCTION

Back 68

– The cell can increase its productivity over time if faced with a challenge in an attempt to prolong stress or injury
– Ex. liver cells producing more enzymes to deal with detoxification of a certain drug, leads to increased drug tolerance but saves liver cells from death

Front 69

SEQUESTRATION

Back 69

– The cell can “wall off” an injured area or organelle by wrapping it in a membrane and creating a vacuole within the cell

Front 70

Cell Injury and Death

Back 70

If the cell can no longer adapt or its capacity is exceeded, it will become injured

Front 71

If a cell is injured or killed, one of these 4 critical intracellular systems has been breached

Back 71

1) Generation of ATP (cellular respiration)
2) Cell membrane structure
3) Internal enzymes and structural proteins
4) DNA in the nucleus

Front 72

The significance of cell injury depends on these 4 things

Back 72

1) Type of injury
2) Duration of exposure to injury
3) Severity of injury
4) Cell’s susceptibility
Cells are injured when the ability or need to adapt is overwhelming and the cell degenerates.
Degeneration can be reversible if the cell is resilient, has a good blood supply, and good nutritional status; or, degeneration can be irreversible, leading to necrosis = cell death

Front 73

Causes of Cell Injury
Cells can be injured in six ways:

Back 73

Hypoxia
Physical Injury
Chemical Injury
Biological Injury
Abnormal Immunologic Response (hypersensitivities)
Aging

Front 74

Patterns of Cell Injury
If cell damage is reversible (meaning the cause can be eliminated), two main conditions will occur

Back 74

1) CELLULAR SWELLING
–Results from Na+ and H2O influx into cell
–Common and reversible response to injury
–Rarely impairs cell or organ function
–Mild form of injury
2) FATTY CHANGES
–Results from an increase in intracellular lipids
–Implies damage to cellular enzymes used for fat metabolism
–More serious form of injury
–Seen in liver cells mainly, but also heart, kidney, and skeletal muscle cells

Front 75

Cell Death
(2 types)

Back 75

–Controlled cell destruction is known as APOPTOSIS
–Death resulting from cell injury is known as NECROSIS

Front 76

APOPTOSIS

Back 76

– Involves the elimination of cells due to degeneration, excessive numbers, improper development, or genetic damage
– Typically initiated by the cell itself (internal destructive enzymes)
– Can occur in certain disease states

Front 77

NECROSIS

Back 77

– Cell death occurs due to irreversible cell injury and typically cell replacement or regeneration does not occur
– Involves either: ENZYMATIC DIGESTION or DENATURATION OF CELLULAR PROTEINS
– If autolysis occurs, the destruction is brought about by the cell’s own lysosomal enzymes, or by heterolysis which is destruction by WBC’s
– Autolysis will lead to liquefactive necrosis (loss of structure)
– Heterolysis will lead to coagulative necrosis (cell gels or clots)
– Other forms of necrosis are aseptic necrosis seen with some infections or inflammation, or ischemic necrosis seen with loss of blood