Patho Unit 1 Test 1

Front 1

Ribosomes:

Back 1

Site of protein synthesis

Front 2

Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Back 2

Tubular communication system; synthesizes proteins

Front 3

Goldgi Complex:

Back 3

Packages substances made by ER into secretory granules or vesicles

Front 4

Lysosomes & peroxixomes:

Back 4

Digestive system of cell

Front 5

Mitochondria:

Back 5

Power plant of the cell; uses enzymes to capture energy of food stuffs

Front 6

Nucleus

Back 6

Contain DNA; control center

Front 7

Cell Membrane:

Back 7

Encloses cell; maintains electrical activities of the cell; transport of materials; intra & intercellular communications

Front 8

Cytoskeleton:

Back 8

Network of microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, & thick filaments

Front 9

Microtubules:

Back 9

Cell form; intracellular transport

Front 10

Cilia & Flagella:

Back 10

Move cells through fluid media

Front 11

Microfilaments:

Back 11

Responsible for muscle contraction allowing movement of cytoplasm

Front 12

Anabolism:

Back 12

Building up

Front 13

Catabolism:

Back 13

Breaking down

Front 14

ATP:

Back 14

Energy currency of the cell

Front 15

Glycolytic Pathway:

Back 15

Anaerobic; pyruvate is converted to lactic acid

Front 16

Citric acid cycle:

Back 16

Aerobic; pyruvate is converted into acetylcoenzyme A which can transfer energy into ATP

Front 17

A cell membrane is composed of?

Back 17

Lipids; lipid soluble molecules include O2, CO2, ETOH, & fatty acids

Front 18

PASSIVE MOVEMENT:

Back 18

Influenced by chemical & electrical gradients; DOESN’T require energy.

1. Simple diffusion – movement from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration
2. Facilitated diffusion – occurs across the concentration gradient; requires transport protein; only move from area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration; uses no energy; example is glucose
3. Osmosis

Front 19

Osmosis:

Back 19

Occurs across semi-permeable membranes; allows passage of water but not all solute particles; movement controlled by concentration of non-diffusable particles

Important in fluid & electrolyte balance

Water moves from side with low particle concentration & high water concentration to side with high particle concentration & low water concentration

Front 20

Active transport:

Back 20

Particles move from LOWER concentration to HIGHER concentration

Energy is needed to pull particles uphill against the concentration gradient

2 types – primary active transport (energy source ATP); secondary active transport (harnesses energy from primary ATP & uses to transport 2nd substance)

Example – sodium/potassium pump

Front 21

Aerobic Metabolism:

Back 21

Uses Oxygen; occurs in mitochondria; 90% of energy

Front 22

Anaerobic Metabolism:

Back 22

Uses glycolysis; lactic acid is the by product; doesn’t use Oxygen

Front 23

Ion Channels:

Back 23

Allow rapid movement

Composed of proteins that span width of cell membrane

Bypass lipid layer of cell membrane

Highly selective channel

2 types – leakage channel & gated channel

Front 24

Cell Potentials

Back 24

Resting membrane potential – inside of cell is more negative related to outside of the cell; reflects the difference of K+ ion because the cell is more permeable to K+

Action potential – occurs when Na+ permeability is high; outside of cell is negative, & inside becomes positive due to ions

Excitability is determined by the difference in concentration between the inside & the outside ions & the permeability of cell membrane to ions

Front 25

Resting Membrane Potential

Back 25

Tissue which is excitable is not transmitting impulses

Na+/K+ pump contributes to resting membrane potential; removes 3 Na+ and returns 2 K+

Front 26

Tissues:

Back 26

4 types - epithelial, connective, nervous, & muscle
Epithelial – covers & lines the body surfaces
Connective – supports the body
Nervous – designed for communication
Muscle – responsible for movement

Front 27

Tissue Type Breakdown:

Back 27

Muscle – skeletal, cardiac, & smooth

Skeletal – most abundant; thick myosin & actin fibers slide over each other to produce muscle contraction

Cardiac – has property of automaticity

Nervous – afferent & efferent fibers

Front 28

Cell Responses to Stress, Injury, & Aging:

Back 28

Adaptations relate to growth & differentiation

Cells adapt to changes in work demands or threats to survival by changing size (atrophy & hypertrophy), number (hyperplasia), and type (metaplasia).

Dysplasia – deranged cell growth results in changes in size, shape, and appearance; precursor for cancer

Front 29

Cell Injury: Reversible & Irreversible Causes:

Back 29

Hypoxia


Physical Agents


Biologic Agents


Ionizing Radiation


Nutritional Imbalance

Front 30

Cellular Aging

Back 30

Programmed Change Theories – genetic influences

Error Theories

Front 31

Apoptosis:

Back 31

Cell suicide; eliminates worn out cells, excess cells, or damaged cells

Front 32

Necrosis:

Back 32

unregulated enzymatic digestion of cell components, loss of cell membrane integrity, uncontrolled release of products of cell death; inflammation occurs

Front 33

Gangrene:

Back 33

Considerable mass of tissue undergoes necrosis; dry, wet, or gas type (Clostridium – hydrogen bubbles in tissue)

Front 34

Cellular Aging:

Back 34

Programmed Change Theories (genetic influences)

Error Theories – without repairs made

Front 35

DNA:

Back 35

Stores genetic information for cell structure & function; 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans

Front 36

Messenger RNA:

Back 36

Template for protein synthesis; interprets DNA

Front 37

Mitosis:

Back 37

Duplication of chromosomes for somatic cell lines; daughter cells

Front 38

Meiosis:

Back 38

Replication of germ cells; reproduction

Front 39

Mendel’s Laws

Back 39

Experimented with simple garden peas
*Single gene inheritance
*Predictability of inheritance

Front 40

Autosomal Dominant:

Back 40

Transmitted from single affected parent to 50% of offspring

Front 41

Autosomal Recessive:

Back 41

Manifested only when each parent is at least carriers of the disease; affects both sexes; 25% change of passing onto offspring

Front 42

X-Linked Disorders:

Back 42

Associated with female X chromosome; predominately recessive disorders

Front 43

Chromosomal Disorders:

Back 43

Alterations in number; Trisomy 21 & Klinefelter’s syndrome (testicular dysgenesis in males, XXY, XXXY)

Front 44

Tay-Sachs Disease:

Back 44

Lysosomal storage disease

Prominent in eastern European

Jews (Ashkenazi)

Normal at birth

Progressive weakness 6-10 months

Death by 4 years of age

Front 45

Teratogenic Agents:

Back 45

Radiation

Chemicals & Drugs

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Folic Acid Deficiency

Infectious Agents

Front 46

Period of Vulnerability:

Back 46

Critical window of development

Generally before 3 months gestation

Fetal Alcohol syndrome – baby is susceptible to affects of alcohol throughout pregnancy

Folic acid deficiency – neural tube defects

Infectious diseases – cross placenta; TORCH; chicken pox

Front 47

Prenatal Diagnosis:

Back 47

Maternal Serum Markers: AFP (fetal protein) indicates neural tube defects and abdominal wall disorders (elevated marker); Trisomy 21 (depressed marker)

Front 48

Amniocentesis:

Back 48

Withdraw fluid from bag of waters for testing

Front 49

Proliferation:

Back 49

Orderly process for replacing cells

Front 50

Differentiation:

Back 50

Proliferating cells are transformed into different & more specialized cells

Front 51

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

Back 51

Control movement through the cell cycle

Front 52

CDK inhibitors:

Back 52

Tightly regulate activity of CDKs

Front 53

DNA checkpoints:

Back 53

G1-S and G2-M; DNA defects are edited & repaired at these points

Front 54

Cancer:

Back 54

Comes from the word meaning ‘crab like;’ disorder of altered cell differentiation & proliferation; failure of CDKs or DNA checkpoints; failure of apoptosis

Front 55

Neoplasm:

Back 55

A tumor or abnormal mass of tissue in which growth exceeds (& is uncoordinated with) that of normal tissue

All tumors are composed of either parenchymal tissue or stromal (support) tissue

Benign tumors have the suffix –oma

Cancerous tumors have carcinoma (arising from epithelial tissue) or sarcoma (arising from mesenchymal tissue) added to the benign name

Front 56

Anaplasia:

Back 56

Lack of cell differentiation

Front 57

Contact inhibition:

Back 57

Cessation of growth after one cell comes into contact with another

Front 58

Adhesion:

Back 58

Ability of cells to stick together (cancer cells are easily shed)

Because cancer cells lack differentiation, they don’t function properly, nor do they die according to the time frames of normal cells

They lose contact inhibition, cohesiveness, & adhesion, interfering with cell to cell communication & elaboration of degredative enzymes

Front 59

Metastasis:

Back 59

Development of secondary tumor in a location distant from the primary site; occurs by way of lymph channels (lymph nodes) & blood vessels (liver)

Front 60

Sentinel lymph node:

Back 60

First lymph node in route of drainage from cancer site

Front 61

Tumor growth:

Back 61

Dependent upon # of cells dividing/moving through cell cycle, duration of cell cycle, & number of cells lost compared to number of new cells being produced

Front 62

Angiogenesis:

Back 62

Development of blood supply

Front 63

Benign Tumor:

Back 63

Cell characteristics – well differentiated; resembles cell of origin

Rate of growth – slow; may stop or even regress

Mode of growth – expansion without invasion of surrounding tissue; usually encapsulated

Metastasis – doesn’t spread by metastasis

Space occupying lesion

Front 64

Malignant tumor:

Back 64

Cell characteristics – undifferentiated cells; bears little resemblance to cells of origin

Rate of growth – variable; depends on level of differentiation; increased anaplasia produces increased rate of growth

Mode of growth – invasion; sends out processes to infiltrate surrounding tissue

Metastasis – uses blood & lymph channels to spread to other areas of body

Malignant tumor usually undetectable until doubled 30 times (1 cm size); contains > 1 billion cells.

At 35 doublings, contains > 1 trillion cells = deadly

Front 65

Oncogenesis:

Back 65

Genetic process whereby normal cells are transformed into malignant cells

Involves inheritance of cancer susceptibility genes & environmental factors (chemicals, radiation, & viruses)

Common pathway of cancer development: mutations in genes that control signaling pathways

4 genes control cell growth & replication: growth promoting (proto-oncogenes); growth inhibiting tumor suppressor genes (antioncogenes); genes controlling cell death (apoptosis genes); genes regulating repair of DNA

Front 66

Host and Environmental Factors:

Back 66

Heredity – breast cancer, retinoblastoma, & some colon cancer

Follows mendelian laws – 1 first degree relative = 10% chance; 2 family members = 15% chance; 3 family members = 30% chance

Hormones
Immunologic mechanisms
Chemical carcinogens
Radiation

Front 67

Clinical manifestations:

Back 67

Cancer compresses blood vessels, obstructs lymph flow, disrupts tissue integrity, invades serous cavities, & compresses visceral organs.

Chemical mediators produce pain, sap energy reserves, cause weight loss, & tissue wasting

Front 68

Cancer cachexia:

Back 68

Weight loss, muscle & fat wasting, weakness, anorexia, & anemia; common with most solid tumors except breast cancer

Front 69

Paraneoplastic syndromes:

Back 69

Manifestations in sites not affected by the disease itself

Front 70

Diagnosis:

Back 70

PAP smear
Physical examination
Mammography
Prostate exam
Tumor markers hCG-germ cell (testicular cancer), PSA (prostate cancer), AFP (liver cancer, germ cell testicular cancer), CA 125 (ovarian cancer)

Front 71

Treatment

Back 71

Goals – curative, control, & palliative

Surgery
Radiation
Chemotherapy
Hormone/antihormone therapy – example?
Immunotherapy
Targeted therapy

Front 72

Children

Back 72

Adult cancers tend to be epithelial in origin

Childhood cancers = hematopoietic, nervous or connective tissue

Successful treatment possible – problems in adulthood (growth delay, radiation causing problems with cognition & learning, sterility, cardiomyopathy)