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149 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
An adaptive change where a cell increases in number is called ________________________________.
Hyperplasia
List one cellular change that occurs in an atrophic cell___________________________________________________
Decreased mitochondria & rough E.R. increased lysosomes decreased protein synthesis, increased protein catabolism
Cancer cells often exhibit anaplasia, which can also be called ________________________.
List one enzyme that degrades free radicals inside of peroxisomes___________________________
Catalase
Why does failure of the mitochondria result in irreversible cell damage?
Decreased ATP - Na/K pumps fail - NA in and K out - H2O enters freely - cell swells -organelles rupture - Ruptured lysosomes cause autodigestion
This type of necrosis is wet and gooey in appearance because of the action of hydrolytic enzymes. It is called _________________________.
Liquefaction necrosis
The growth of the uterine lining because of pregnancy is due to what cellular adaptation?
Hypertrophy
The entrance into the cell of what ion results in autodigestion? ________________.
Sodium
The pressure in the blood that is greatest at the venous end of the capillary is called ___________________________.
Blood onchotic pressure (proteins in blood create pressure by pulling H2O)
ADH release is triggered by a _______________ in blood osmolarity (choose either increase or decrease).
Increase
Severe diarrhea can cause a (hypotonic, isotonic, hypertonic) alteration {circle one}.
Hypertonic
Hypervolemia can result from (hypernatremia, hyponatremia) {circle one}.
Hypernatremia
Acidosis results in (hypokalemia, hyperkalemia) {circle one}.
Hyperkalemia
The organ responsible for regulating potassium balance is the _____________________.
Kidney
A malignant tumor that arises from epithelial tissue can be called a ________________________________________.
Carcinoma
Cancer cells _______________________,which means that they are not attached to their neighboring cells.
Dissociate
Type of cellular adaptation that results in a reduction in the number of ribosome and rough E.R.
Atrophy
When the heart becomes enlarged, it is undergoing this type of cellular adaptation
Hypertrophy
Alcohol can result in tissue damage because of these substances which are produced during metabolism
Free radicals
This type of necrosis occurs in tissues with an abundance of connective tissue
Coagulative
Inflammation results in edema because of an (increase, decrease) in (BHP,BOP)
Decrease, BOP
ADH is released because of an (increase, decrease) in blood osmolarity
Increase
Hypersecretion of aldosterone results in this type of change in water balance (hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic)
Hypertonic
Explain the process by which a cell undergoes lysosomal rupture during hypoxic injury
Hypoxia-decreased ATP-Na/K pumps quit-Na in K out- H2O in- cell swells- organelles swell-ruptured lysosomes release hydrolase-anaerobic process increases lactic acid - decreases pH- activates hydrolases-autodigestion
Define lipid peroxidation and explain why carbon tetrachloride toxicity primarily affects the liver
Breakdown of lipids by free radicals. CCl4 is converted to free radicals in the liver which is why the liver is primarily affected
List 2 of the 3 things ATP is used for in a contracting muscle
Energy to fuel Na/K pump and drives the Myosin/Actin cross-bridge
Would a decrease in ADH secretion (diabetes insipidus) result in hypervolemia or does it cause hypovolemia? Why?
Hypovolemia. Decreased ADH causes decreased H2O in blood and thus a lower blood volume
What organ and hormone are primarily responsible for the regulation of K?
Kidneys/ Aldosterone
Which type of acid base disorder causes hyperkalemia?
Acidosis
How would you treat a diabetic for hyperkalemia?
Administer insulin and glucose
Mild hyperkalemia reults in tachycardia. Why?
Potassium is positibely charges which brings the cell from -70 towards -50 depolarizing the cell and causing more frequent contractions and therefore a faster heartrate
This cellular adaptation leads to an increase in protein anabolism
Atrophy
This type of lysosome contains activated enzymes
Secondary lysosomes
This type of cellular adaptation occurs in the uterus during pregnancy(hint: two word answer)
Hormonal hypertrophy
The loss of this organelle during hypoxic injury signals that the cell has undergone an irreversible injury
Mitochondria / lysosome
This histologic change during necrosis appears like small condensed nuclei
Pyknosis
In addition to lysosomal rupture what other condition must exist in the cell in order for autodigestion to occur?
Acidosis
Liquefaction necrosis looks "liquidy" because it occurs in organs that lack this type of tissue
Connective tissue
Hyponatremia will stimulate the release of this hormone
Aldosterone
Does water deprivation lead to hypovolemia or does it lead to hypervolemia?
Hypovolemia
Would an increase in ADH secretion lead to an increase or a decrease in osmolarity?
Decrease
Will hypokalemia result in an increase in blood pH or does it result in a decrease in blood pH?
Increase
Would you expect a patient with end-stage kidney disease to be hypokalemic or hyperkalemic?
Hyperkalemic
If ischemia were to occur over a large portion of the body at once, what acid/base disorder would you anticipate? (If it caused autodigestion)
Acidosis
List a specific cause of pathologic atrophy
Decreased blood flow due to a clot or obstruction
What organ atrophies due to a physiologic cause?
Thymus
Why do atrophic cells have decreased number of ribosomes than non-atrophic cells?
They do not need to make as much protein
Why do atrophic cells have more lysosomes than non-atrophic cells?
Unneeded rough E.R. and ribosomes due to less protein production - need to be digested
Is BHP, BOP or neither MOST affected and is the force increased or decreased with an increase in aldosterone release?
BHP force increased due to increased Na+ in blood which pulls in more H2O
Is BHP, BOP or neither MOST affected and is the force increased or decreased with a release of histamine?
Increased vascular permeability due to vasoldilation causes BHP to decrease
Is BHP, BOP or neither MOST affected and is the force increased or decreased with a decrease in ADH release?
Decreased BHP due to less H2O in blood
What type of cellular adaptation leads to an increase in E.R and a decrease in lysosomes? WHY?
Hypertrophy. More protein needed = more E.R., less cellular debris to digest = less lysosomes
What organ is the best at regeneration?
Liver
Give 2 pathologic examples of hyperplasia
Fibroadenoid hyperplasia and endometrial hyperplasia
Give 2 physiologic examples of hyperplasia
Compensatory hyperplasia (liver and calluses) hormonal hyperplasia (uterine hyperplasia during pregnancy)
Give a pathologic example of hypertrophy
Myocardial hypertrophy
Give a physiologic example of cellular hypertrophy
Uterine hypertrophy during pregnancy
Give another name for atypical hyperplasia
Dysplasia
Give a pathologic cause for cellular metaplasia
Smoking
Give 5 mechanisms leading to hypoxic injuries
Decreased O2 in air, decreased hemoglobin, decreased RBC's, any disease of respiratory or cardiovascular system, poor circulation - ischemia
Which type of hypoxic injury can the body adapt to? (gradual or acute)
Gradual
During cardiac ischemia how long before the heart turns pale? Stops contractions? Cells die?
1 min, 3-5 min, 20 min
Why does the heart stop contracting after 3-5 min with cardiac ischemia?
Lack of ATP
2 points at which cell damage is irreversible?
Damage to membrane function and destruction of mitochondria (lack of ATP production)
2 natural mechanisms to get rid of free radicals
Antioxidants & enzymes (superoxide dismutase and catalase)
ROS?
Reactive Oxygen Species
Define oxidative stress
Injury induced by free radicals especially reactive oxygen species
Define free radicals
Electrically uncharged atom or group of atoms with unpaired electron - unstable & can make injurious bonds to proteins, lipids & carbs
3 sources of free radicals
Endogenous (from normal metabolic processes), metabolism of exogenous drugs (alcohol), absorption of extreme energy sources (x-rays, ultraviolet light)
Define ischemia
Lack of bloodflow to tissues
Define atrophy
Decrease in cell size
Define hypertrophy
Increase in cell size
Define hyperplasia
Increase in cell numbers
Define metaplasia
Change in cell type
Define dysplasia
Change in cell size, shape or organization
What are the 2 types of cellular adaptation that are most likely to lead to cancer?
Metaplasia and dysplasia
What type of enzymes are contained in lysosomes?
Hydrolases
What is the difference between primary and secondary lysosomes?
Primary - inactive, secondary - active
What are 4 examples of hypertrophic cellular changes?
Increased protein, increased mitochondria, increased E.R., decreased lysosomes
Define hypoxia
Lack of oxygen supply to tissues
Define ischemia
Lack of blood flow to tissues
What is the primary result of ischemia? Why?
Decreased ATP production. O2 needed to convert glucose to ATP w/O2=36ATP without O2= 2ATP
Define pathologic
Disease process
What is the purpose of the Na/K pump?
Keeps the amount of Na/K the same at all times by pumping out Na and pumping in K
What gland makes ADH?
Hypothalamus
What gland releases ADH?
Pituitary gland
What gland makes aldosterone?
Adrenal gland (adrenal cortex)
What is the primary function of ADH?
To regulate water balance - increases amount of H2O in the blood
What is the primary function of aldosterone?
Conservation of sodium increasing H2O retention and BP
Does alcohol inhibit or increase ADH secretion?
Inhibits
What is the liver condition in which the liver looks yellow, light and fatty also called "fatty liver"?
Hepatic lipidosis
What structure in the cell membrane is damaged by free radicals in order to introduce Na into the cell eventually leading to autodigestion?
Phospholipids destroyed by free radicals via lipid peroxidation
What type of molecule is the vehicle to transport lipids in the bloodstream?
Proteins
Why does the liver become fatty with increased lipid peroxidation?
Lack of protein in blood and increased # of lipids due to larger lipids being broken into smaller pieces via lipid peroxidation means there is not enough protein to carry lipids out of the liver
What is the disease of the liver in which there is scarring in areas of the liver that have died combined with raised areas where the liver is trying to regenerate?
Cirrhosis
What is the process from alcohol-cirrhosis?
Ethanol is broken down to Acetylaldehyde, a free radical that damages the liver just like CCl4 causes hepatic lipidosis which leads to cirrhosis
Define necrosis
Cell death
Name the 2 histologic changes of necrosis
Pyknosis, karyolysis
What type of histologic changes cause the nucleus to rupture?
Karyolysis
Can a cell have both pyknosis and karyolysis at the same time?
Yes
What is the type of necrosis also called "Dry Gangrene"?
Coagulative
What organs are prone to coagulative necrosis or "dry gangrene"?
Kidney, heart, adrenal glands
In coagulative necrosis what causes the cell to appear like egg whites ?
Denatured proteins inside the cell
What type of necrosis occurs in glial cells and neurons - cells that lack connective tissue?
Liquefaction Necrosis
Why does liquefaction necrosis appear to be runny?
When the cell dies there is no connective tissue to hold the dead cells in place so it forms a puddle
What type of necrosis looks like feta cheese - a combination of liquid and dry necrosis?
Caseus
What type of tissue might be affected with caseus necrosis?
Lungs (tuberculosis) moderate amount of connective tissue
What type of necrosis is caused by lipases?
Fat necrosis
What type of necrosis occurs in the abdomen, pancreas, breasts and under the skin?
Fat necrosis
What type of necrosis can occur in a fetus and usually goes away on it's own?
Fetal fat necrosis
What is the difference between apaptosis and necrosis?
Apoptosis - neat orderly, programmed cell death, phagocytized by neighboring cells. Necrosis - messy, spreads to neighboring cells, by swelling, lysing and releasing hydrolases to damage neighboring cell
4 mechanisms for edema to occur in the tissues?
Vascular system pushes out too much H2O (increased BHP), does not reclaim enough H2O (decreased BOP, lymph system blockage or increased capillary permeability (causes proteins to leak through increasing BHP and decreasing BOP)
4 causes for edema occuring in the tissues?
Polydypsia (increased BHP) Anorexia/starvation (decreased BOP), sepsis (increased capillary permeability), Breast cancer (lymph obstruction)
Does BOP increase, decrease or stay the same as it passes through a normal capillary?
Stays the same
Does BHP increase, decrease, or stay the same as it passes through a normal capillary?
Decreases
Define isotonic changes
Changes in both Na and H2O concetration equally - cells don't change size or shape
Define hypertonic cellular change
Too much Na concentration in the blood or too little H2O in the blood
Define hypotonic cellular change
Not enough Na in blood or too much H2O in blood
What is osmolarity?
The solid portion of blood (Na, proteins, etc…)
What type of alteration in water balance is caused by a hemorrhage?
Isotonic volume depletion - equal loss of Na & H2O)
What type of alteration in water balance is caused by iatrogenic fluids (too much fluid in the IV) and does not happen naturally?
Isotonic volume excess
What type of alteration in water balance is caused by hypernatremia?
Hypertonic alteration
Will you have hypervolemia or hypovolemia with hypernatremia?
Hypervolemia
What type of alteration in water balance is caused by dehydration?
Hypertonic alteration
Will you have hypervolemia or hypovolemia with excessive diarrhea?
Hypovolemia
What type of alteration in water balance is caused by hyponatremia?
Hypotonic alteration
Will you have hypervolemia or hypovolemia with hyponatremia?
Hypovolemia
What type of alteration in water balance is caused by drinking too much water or an excess of ADH?
Hypotonic alteration
Will drinking too much H2O or an excess of ADH cause hypervolemia or hypovolemia?
Hypervolemia
What is the name for the disease in which a person produces too much aldosterone?
Cushing's disease
What is the name for the disease in which a person does not produce enough aldosterone?
Addison's disease
What are 3 causes of hypernatremia?
Cushing's disease, lack of water and consuming too much Na
What are the Extra Cellular Fluid effects from hypertonic alterations due to hypernatremia?
Increased BP & hypervolemia
What are the ICF effects from hypertonic alterations due to hypernatremia?
Cell will shrink (crenate) - pulls water from cell
What are the ECF effecs from hypertonic alterations due to water deficit?
Hypovolemia - decreased H2O
What are the ICF effects from hypertonic alterations due to water deficit?
Cell shrinks - decreased H2O
What is the term that means a cell shrinks?
Crenate
What are the ECF effects from hypotonic alterations due to hyponatremia?
Increased H2O, decreased Na in blood (but H2O not being replaced in blood when it goes to cells through osmosis), hypovolemia
What are the ICF effects from hypotonic alterations due to hyponatremia?
Cell will swell and lyse
What are the ECF effects from hypotonic alterations due to water excess?
Increased H2O in blood, hypervolemia
What are the ICF effects from hypotonic alterations due to water excess?
Cell will swell and Lyse
What are the series of effects on the brain from any alteration in water balance?
Confusion, seizures, coma then death
What is the starling hypothesis?
Net filtration = forces favoring filtration minus forces opposing filtration
What is the pressure that pushes water out of a capillary?
Hydrostatic pressure (blood and interstitial)
What is the pressure that pulls water into a capillary?
Blood and interstitial onchotic pressure (proteins in the blood)
Which is greater on the arteriole end of a capillary BHP or BOP?
BHP
Which is greater on the venule end of a capillary BHP or BOP? WHY?
BOP - proteins in the blood have not left even though pressure doesn't change this pressure is greater than BHP now
What would cause a person to have a seizure with an alteration in water balance?