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153 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Macroevolution |
Evolution above the species level |
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Phylogeny |
Evolutionary relationships between groups of organisms |
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Anagenesis |
Descent within a single lineage from ancestor to descendant |
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Cladogenesis |
Descent by splitting the lineage into two or more new species |
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Modes of Speciation |
1. Allopatric speciation 2. Sympatric speciation 3. Parapatric speciation |
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Allopatric Speciation |
Speciation that takes place in geographically isolated populations |
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Sympatric Speciation |
speciation that takes place in geographically overlapping population |
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parapatric speciation |
Speciation that occurs when populations are not separated by a geographical barrier but rather by an extreme change in habitat |
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Monophyly |
Evolutionary tree with single origin that includes an ancestor and all of its descendants |
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Polyphyly |
Evolutionary Tree that includes two or more independent origins. Often represents groups of organisms that show similar features but are not the result of common evolutionary descent |
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Paraphyly |
Ancestor with some (but not all) of its descendants on an evolutionary tree |
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Order of Taxonomic Classification? (broad to narrow) |
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Familiy, Genus, Species |
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Phenetics |
Numerical taxonomy in which classification is based solely on morphological similarities. (Grouping animals by features that look the same). Problem: Does not distinguish between homology and analogy. |
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Autapomorphy |
distinct to a specific taxon derived trait characters belonging to a single taxon |
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Synapomorphy |
Characteristics share by more than one but not all taxa |
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Symplesiomorphy |
shared primitive condition |
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Convergence |
two like organisms evolved similar traits independently and separately, not as a function of a close evolutionary relationship. |
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Paleobiogeography |
study of recognizing aspatial distribution patterns of organisms into distinct geographical units |
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three barriers to migration? |
corridors: sometimes open, sometimes closed filters: selected access for some taxa sweepstake routes: occasionally open, but random access |
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dispersal biogeography |
organisms originally populate one center than speciate and disperse outwards. (pre-continental drift approach to biogeography |
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Vicariance biogeography |
Organisms develop in situ without significant dispersal. Geographical ranges are then tectonically fragmented. |
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Edicaran Fauna |
Dickinsonia Charniodiscus, Charnia Location: Mistaken Point Rangeomorph: form taxon |
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Rangiomorphs |
Include Charnia
NOT infaunal grows from tip |
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Dickinsonia |
Edicaran fauna |
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Three types of metazoan symmetry? |
asymmetry (mostly Porifera) radial symmetry bilateral symmetry |
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Burgess Shale |
Location: most continents on southern hemisphere ~540 mya mostly small, shelly fossils modern phyla of multicellular organisms, 545 mya=1st appearance of sediment-penetrating trace fossils |
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Gastrolation |
embryo collapses on itself to form blastopore, which becomes either the mouth or anus (protostome or deuterostome) |
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Big 5 Mass Extinctions |
Triassic/Jurassic (killed dinosaurs) Late Devonian Ordovician/Silurian Permian Cretaceous/Tertiary |
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Trilobita |
among the first of the arthropods probably evolved from segmented worms most diverse group of extinct organisms ~510 mya: Burgess Shale and similar deposits |
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Opabinia |
5 eyes long flexible proboscis |
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Lobopoda |
Aysheia: spines and grasping arms at head end Hallucigenia: paired spines,slightly curved legs. May be related to velvet worms |
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Mollusc
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defined by its mantle nerve cords run underneath gut (opposite of ours) |
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Cnidaria |
radially-symmetrical two basic life modes: swimming, jellyfish-like medusa and immobile, polyp-like forms |
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Chordates |
Phylum. Part of larger superphylum Deuterostomia. bilateral symmetry. (Nephrozoa clade) Pikaia- Cambrian |
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Gastrula stage |
Stage in which blastula cluster of cells collapse to form blastocoel |
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Urochordata |
Tunicata |
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Taphonomy |
The study of what happens to an organism ater its death and until its discovery. Includes decomposition, post-mortem transport, burial, compaction, diagenesis, etc. |
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Necrolytic processes |
processes of death which include allogenic and autogenic processes. Autogenic include disease, old age Allogenic include suffocation, freezing, overgrowth, bioimmuration, etc |
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Carbonate Compensation Depth |
depth in the oceanbelow which the rate of dissolution of calcite increases dramatically |
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Autecology |
population individuals of a species living together measured in terms of age structure and/or survivorship fundamental unit of ecology |
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Synecology |
communities association of species within a particular habitat classified according to trophic structure, interactions between species, competition for space, adaptations to feeding |
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community |
biotic part of an ecosystem |
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fossil leaves |
plant morphology: leaf size and shape indicate warm, cold, dry, wet, etc climates |
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phenotype |
individual's observable traits |
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genotype |
genetic contribution to the phenotype. some traits are largely determined by this, some determined by environmental factors. |
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Darwin's dilemma |
no evidence to show what happened before the Cambrian explosion |
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Walther's Law |
major ichnofacies and their position. Vertical succession of facies indicates changes in paleoenvironment. |
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Evolution of bone? |
Unmineralized cartilage likely came first network of collagen fibers on which hydroxyapatite crystals grow first hydroxyapatite deposited as exoskeleton Advantages: don't have to molt to grow, store nutrients, flexible, mobility |
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Agnathans "no jaws" |
lampreys conodonts (Late Cambrian - Triassic) early vertebrates. fish. apatite teeth. Pterospidomorphi "winged-shield-forms" Anaspida "without shield" Theolodonts "feeble teeth" Galeaspida "helmet shields" |
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Osteostraci "bony shields" |
most advanced Agnathans
bottom feeder semicircular head shield complex sensory system fixed mouth, 9 or 10 gill openings |
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Gnathostomata "jaw mouth" |
placodermii acanthodii chondrichthyes osteichthyes supported in fossil record from the Silurian |
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Geologic order (Paleozoic) |
Precambrian, Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian |
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Geologic order (Mesozoic) |
Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous |
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Geologic order (Cenozoic) |
Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, Holocene |
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Geologic order (total) |
Precambrian, Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, Holocene CODSCPTJCPEOMPPH |
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Constraints on size |
needs respiratory surface area (gill arches) to maintain body size |
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Evolution of jaws |
gill arches increase, get support, modify |
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dermal bone |
laid down as a two-dimensional membrane. human cranial bones |
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bone evolution
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endochondral ossification
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Placoderms
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armored fish with jaws six clades: Acanthothoraci, Thenanida, Antiarchi, Petalichthyida, Pterydontida, Arthodira first vertebrate w/ paired fins many suited to bottom feeded: shellfish crushing dermal plates earliest known instance of sex (internal fertilization) pivotal in terms of evolution of vertebrates. basal gnathostomes |
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Chondrichthyes |
oldest undisputed shark scales 420 mya (early Silurian) 2 sets paired fins most primitive living gnathostome earliest known fossil shark teeth: Leoenodus hox genes moved enamel production to mouth, scales -> teeth |
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Acanthodian fish ("akanthos"=spine) |
oldest known gnathostome from Late Ordovician (!) heterocercal tail pectoral and pelvic fins modified to long spines most lack teeth |
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Osteichthyes ("Bony-fish") |
super class arose in Late Silurian Period and radiated in Devonian times Actinopterygii "ray fins" and Sarcopterygii "lobe-fins" |
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Actinopterygii |
fins made of dermal bone teeth fused to jaw bones |
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sarcopterygii
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Acinistia (coelacanths) and dipnoi (lungfishes) alive today fins have homologous bones with our limbs lungfish have modified swim bladder that functions as a lung and they have gills Osteolepis "labrynthine teeth" glenoid fossa - trends of joint where humerus fits into the shoulder bone |
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labrynthine teeth |
Osteolepis advantage: when pulp cavity wears down, dentine grooves are left |
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WHAT OBSTACLES HAD TO BE OVERCOME BY FISH TO LIVE ON LAND? (7) |
Locomotion, Respiration, Waste Disposal, Sensory, Reproduction, Feeding, Metabolism Locomotion: buoyed by water versus walking and fighting gravity Respiration: breathe oxygen, but not through gills. Lungs must be kept moist, and reducing the loss of water across these surfaces is important. Metabolism: maintain a higher body temperature outside of water Feeding: jaw mechanisms (can't suck in prey like in water) Disposal of waste: must concentrate waste products while minimizing water loss Reproduction: evolution of amniotes comes later...amphibians lay eggs in water. Sensory: all senses adapted to a different medium |
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Locomotion |
regionalization of the spinal column - interlocks to hold together, must modify to prevent sagging back moving left to right decreases possible size of rib cage which reduces size of lungs need neck to turn head, capture prey, etc limb evolution "front wheel drive" to "rear wheel drive" leg-powered locomotion |
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Costal ventilation |
Musculature squeezing ribs to push air out |
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Buccal pumping |
raising floor of mouth to breathe |
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metabolism |
advantage of terrestriality increase in metabolism and development due to higher body temperature more energy |
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Heart evolution |
Fish hearts: single circuit system Amphibians: chambers Reptiles: 4 chambers (except weird turtles) |
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Tarpon |
only marine fish that gulps air (to fill swim bladder) |
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Respiration evolution |
Fish have four nostrils which connect into 2 |
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sensory systems: fish to tetrapods |
fish use a lateral line system, and so did early tetrapods early tetrapods had poor eyesight and smell early tetrapods could only hear low frequencies: stapes was modified element of fish skull middle ear homologous with spiracle of fish, an opening from pharynx to the side of the head in front of main gill slits |
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Eusthenopteron |
385 MYA lobe-finned fish sister group is lungfish, so may assume possessed lungs (even though they didn't fossilize) homologies in limbs, bone structure of spine matches early fossil tetrapods and is unlike other fish |
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Panderichthys |
tetrapod-like fish from late Devonian body flattened, upward facing eyes, straight tail with well-developed tail fin has both gills and lungs with nostrils tetrapod-like fish, NOT fish-like tetrapod. "fishapod" tetrapod-like skull and body, braincase, and lungs, but still retaining true fins |
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Tiktaalik |
links Panderichthys and early tetrapods functional degree of freedom in joints 375 mya clear humerus, radius, ulna shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints no fins - more like flippers first functional neck flattened head eyes on top fish-like: scales, palate, lower jaw, fin rays (but no toes), lateral linen system not fish-like: mobile neck, ear structured to hear in and out of water, "wrist", elbow |
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Acanthostega |
8 digits, fish-like shoulder structure. inefficient land walking 365 mya less advanced than tiktaalik? |
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Ichthyostega |
365 mya |
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radiocarbon dating |
good up to 50,000 kya |
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catagenesis |
oil zone |
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endogenous |
molecule you synthesized during life |
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exogenous |
external, environment impact |
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diagenesis |
potential for geochemical fossils (unaltered organics) |
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pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (PyGCMS) |
heat something - ignite sample - determine geochemistry. |
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Cadaver decay island |
Microbes produce waste products when eating a dead animal. This alters the chemistry of the sediment around the fossil. |
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Pigment types (3)
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melanins
carotenoids porphyrins NOTE: structural color also exists |
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FTIR mapping |
absorption spectra can be obtained and mapped from a fossil surface by using a reflectance attachment which grids by reflectin an IR beam and non-destructively maps large samples may map organic groups associated with the melanin molecule based on their absorption of INFRARED LIGHT |
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SRS-XRF |
rapid scanning of synchotron |
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Types of fossil analysis? |
FTIR Mapping SRS-XRF (synchotron) PyGCMS |
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Terrestrial ecosystems |
preservation bias: smaller record than marine faunas (shelly bits preserved over soft organisms like plants, worms, etc) complex terrestrial ecosystems appears more than 20 MY later than the first diverse marine communities plants migrated onto land FIRST followed by ARTHROPODS then VERTEBRATES modern trophic structure developed by Permian (probably) Next 200 MY characterized by shifts in vegetation |
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Order of shift to land |
plants --> arthropods --> vertebrates |
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first life on land |
possibly lichen from the Late PreCambrian! (600mya, China) would have formed crusts near water sources |
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Pre-plants |
braided stream: nothing to hold sediment in place. shallow streams |
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post-plants |
meandering stream. Change geology and fluvial processes completely. Change geomorphological landscape through time. |
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Transition to land advantages? (3) |
1. not getting eaten! (nothing there to eat them) 2. more sunlight (doesn't have to filter through water) 3. less competition (not competing for oxygen/nutrients in the water) |
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Adaptations for life on land
(regard to plants?) |
1. maintain water 2. defy gravity 3. UV protection 4. water homeostasis 5. reproductive strategies |
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Ancestors of Plantae |
Plants evolved from green algae, most likely a group called the charophytes. Both contain chlorophyll b, chloroplasts of both have a similar structure, cell wall structure of both is very similar, DNA similarities Ancestral charophytes may have lived in shallow water that sometimes dried out (as do modern charophytes). Selection would have favored adaptations to resist drying out like waxy cuticles |
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Adaptations needed for plants to move to land |
1. intake of water and nutrients (roots) 2. water retention (waxy cuticle) 3. gaseous exchange (stomata and guard celles) 4. mechanical support and anchorage (vascular system, cellulose, lignin, and roots) |
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Reproduction on land (plants |
Gametophyte and sporophyte the embryo of plants separates it from green algae (DISTINCTIVE FACTOR!) |
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Rise of Vascular plants |
homospory to heterospory |
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homospory |
spores are the same size (mosses and most ferns) need water (rainfall) when gametes are mature |
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heterospory |
microspores (males) and megaspores (females) gymnosperms and angiosperms produce spores that develop into hermaphroditic gametophytes that produce both sperm and eggs |
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Lycopsids |
Clubmosses no wood Devonian -> Carboniferous Late Devonian: heterospory diamond shape >1000 species alive today |
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Advantages of seeds |
provides protection and nourishment for developing embryo
dispersal: enclosed in bribe (fruit), animals disperse dormancy: can wait a long time to germinate in good conditions |
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Seeds vs spores |
spores have a short lifetime spores are thinner walled and more vulnerable to pathogens and damage |
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Permian Plants |
Ginkgos: gymnosperm Cycads appear GLOSSOPTERYX: cooler, higher latitudes |
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Angiosperms |
produce true fruit (fertilized embryo, seed on inside, fleshy exterior) flowering plants male and female organs in flower often rely on insects and other animals for pollination and/or seed dispersal nectar and/or fruit to encourage visitation bright colors and smells to attract attention rise in diversity of beetles and bees in the Cretaceous seeds have special adaptations on them to pass through gut without damage UV patterns that birds and insects can see First known angiosperm Archaefructure from China (125 mya) possible evolution in Early Cretaceous to Late Jurassic |
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Cycadophyta |
Cycads appear in Permian more diverse in the past starchy interior poisonous |
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Gymnosperms |
Dinosaurs ate them? do not produce true fruit |
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Gnetophytes |
diverse group in the Mesozoic and Cenzoic |
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Mesozoic angiosperms? |
HUGE diversity of angiosperms all of a sudden! Not well documented in fossil record. Where did they come from? How did they evolve? |
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Cenozoic |
extensive deposits: sediments contain more than 50% of petroleum
cooling of Earth 50 mya rise of mammals major diversification of angiosperms, importantly grasses radiation of marsupials and monotremes (Australia and South America) and placentals (Africa, Eurasia, North America) expansion of bird species butterflies and moths evolve first grass savannas diversification of primates |
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Carboniferous (359-299 mya) |
oxygen levels high - bugs grew larger arthropleura (largest milliped 8 ft long) at the end, form Pangaea coal-bearing multiple orogenies beginning: warm end: cold successful plants used up all the CO2 major ice age at end carried through to early Permian poor conditions for amphibians, tetrapods (pushed adaptations) Late Carboniferous: glaciers formed at southern pole swampy forests. did not decay bc fungus that breaks down lignin had not yet evolved |
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Carboniferous: arthropods |
herbivorous, predator systems evolved later w/scorpions filling niches on land and later others. first flying organisms: dragonfly-like meganeura |
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Carboniferous: Amphibians |
dominant land vertebrate tetrapods start living on land, 5-6 digits diverse and common Eryops: one of the first big vertebrate predators. sharp pointy teeth, but weak bite, must swallow prey whole. tadpole phase with gill slits. |
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Carboniferous: reptiles |
first reptiles! prospered during the cooler, drier period at the end of the Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) scaly skin. negative pressure breathing - use muscles to allow air to come in. alveoli development, regionalization of lungs. alveoli=more surface area, more oxygen amiotic egg to prevent desication, sac for food, sac for waste, semi-porous allows gas exchange |
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Archosauria |
arose ~256 MYA First known: ~245 MYA, Arizonasaurus quadrupeds/facultative bipeds Crocodylomorphs, rauisuchians, aetosaurs, phytosaurs, pterosaurs, dinosauromorphs, pseudosuchia, archosauria, crurotarsi, saurischians, ornithischians, dinosauria |
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Competitive vs opportunistic model of dinosaur success |
competitive: there was something inherently special about dinosaurs - warm-blooded metabolism, upright and fast locomotion ? - that enabled them to outcompete other reptile groups that lived during the Late Triassic opportunistic: dinosaurs weathered one or several mass extinctions, which knocked out other Triassic vertebrates |
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Triassic reptile groups |
Dinosaurs Aetosaurs Phytosaurs Rauisuchians |
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Turnover, extinction, and the two-step model for dinosaur dominance |
3 phases: 1st. late Carnian or early Norian Ischigualastian time, dinos such as Eoraptor and Herrerasaurus from Argentina and Saturnalia from Brazil were rare. end Ischigualastian: climate changes from wet to dry, mass extinction when plants changed. 2nd. end-Ischigualastian turnover opened door for herbivorous sauropodmorph dinosaurs to radiate in Norian and some (e.g. Plateosaurus) became abundant and large. preyed upon by large rausuchians, crurotarsans (e.g. Batrachotomus). theropods, ornithischians remained rare. then-end-Triassic mass extinction. 3rd. Jurassic. crurotarsans extinct, diverse theropods and ornithischians emerge and radiate. |
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Most basal Ornithischian? |
Pisanosaurus mertii herbivorous South Africa 200-190 MYA |
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Fabrosaurs vs Lesothosaurus |
might be the same |
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Heterodontosauridae |
known from Africa, UK, Spain, and Portugal (global). oldest are jaw fragment and teeth from Argentina (Late Triassic) (Pangaea largely intact) diet may have been omnivorous long forearms, although a biped may have been burrowing |
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Eocursor |
early Ornithischian Late Triassic, ~210 MYA (Norian) Argentina most complete known for Triassic Ornithischian |
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Explosion of life in the Jurassic? |
Pangaea breaks up in the middle, divides population vicariance paleobiogeography drives evolution of dinosaurs |
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Thyreophoran |
Stegosauria
Ankylosauria early basal example: Scelidosaurus, early Jurassic (191 MYA) |
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Coracoids
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should always touch in the center of the dinosaur's chest
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Stegosauria |
global distribution. small plates in primitive, large and developed in derived forms. |
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Ankylosauria |
global distribution. Cretaceous. Ankylosaurids and Nodosaurids. tail club is modified vertebra |
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Ankylosaurid |
stereotypical armor dinosaurs with large club of bone on end of tail. no long spines on neck or shoulder. S-shaped nasal passage good for arid environments. |
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Nodosaurid |
encased in armor plates also. Have long spines on neck and shoulder. |
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mid-Jurassic |
HUGE radiation of dinosaurs |
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Pterospidomorphi |
Astraspids, Arandaspids, Heterostraci possess oak-leaf-shaped tubercles Heterostrachans: armored heads with lateral line system. one common gill opening on each side. |
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Anaspida |
limited armor unclear affinities Known from Silurian and Devonian |
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Galeaspida |
"Helmet Shields"
lived in shallow, fresh water and marine environments during Silurian and Devonian fossils found in southeast Asia up to 45 gill openings!!!!!! |
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Cambrian dates |
541 MYA - 489.5 MYA |
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Ordovician dates |
~486 MYA - ~445 MYA Early: Tremadocian -> Floian Middle: Dapingian -> Darriwilian Late: Sandbian -> Katian -> Hirnantian |
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Silurian dates |
~444-~423 Alexandrian -> Wenlock -> Ludlow -> Pridoli |
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Devonian dates |
~419-~372 Early: Lochkovian ->Pragian -> Emsian Middle: Eifelian -> Givetian Late: Frasnian -> Famennian |
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Carboniferous dates |
~359-~304 Mississippian: Tournaisian -> Visean -> Serpukhovian Pennsylvanian: Bashkirian -> Moscowian -> Kasimovian -> Gzhelian |
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Permian dates |
~299-~254 Cisuralian -> Guadalupian -> Lopingian (broad) |
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Triassic dates |
~252-~208 Early: Induan -> Olenekian Middle: Anisian -> Ladinian Late: Carnian -> Norian -> Rhaetian |
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Jurassic dates |
~201-~152 Early: Hettangian -> Sinemurian -> Pliensbachian -> Toarcian Middle: Aalenian -> Bajocian -> Bathonian -> Callovian Late: Oxfordian -> Kimmeridgian -> Tithonian |
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Cretaceous dates |
~145-~72 |
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Paleocene dates |
~66-~59 |
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Eocene dates |
~56-~38 |
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Oligocene dates |
~34-~28 |
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Miocene dates |
~23-~7 |
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Pliocene dates |
5.3-3.6 |
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Pleistocene dates |
2.6-.126 |
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Holocene dates |
rise of human civilization, ice age ends. |
